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Chapter 13: Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood (Family…

- - - - Describe themselves with positive and negative traits
      - Less likely to describe themselves in extreme, all or none ways
      - Emphasizes competencies over specific behaviors
  - - - Compare their own characteristics with those of their peers
      - Better coordinate several aspects of a situation in reasoning about their physical world
      - Combine experiences and behaviors into stable psychological dispositions
      - Blend positive and negative characteristics
  - - - Social competence
      - Physical/athletic competence
      - Academic competence
      - Physical appearance: correlates more strongly with overall self-worth than does any other self-esteem factor
    - - Ethnic differences in self-esteem: Asian kids tend to be reserved about judging themselves positively but are generous in their praise of others
      - Sex differences in self-esteem: Girls are lower in confidence about their physical appearance and athletic abilities; higher in academic self esteem, close friendship and social acceptance
      - Parenting practices and the effects on their children
        
        High self esteem: authoritative parents; warm, positive parents; firm but appropriate expectations back up with explanations
        
        Low self esteem: Too often helping or making decisions for their child (controlling); disapproving or insulting
      - ATTRIBUTIONS: common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior
        
        Children who hold a fixed view of ability develop LEARNED HELPLESSNESS and attribute their failures to alack of ability. Girls and low-income ethnic minority children most vulnerable to this
        
        Asians attend more to failure than to success because failure indicates where corrective action is needed. Americans focus more on success because it increases self-esteem
        
        Kids high in academic self-esteem make MASTERY-ORIENTED attributions, in which successes are credited to ability.
        
        Ways to foster a mastery-oriented approach to learning
        
        Performance evaluations
        
        Parent and teacher encouragement
        
        Provision of tasks
        
        School environment
        
        How kids view their successes (due to personal effort or due to luck) determines how efficacious they believe themselves to be in achieving teir goals
        
        How communication from parents and teachers influences children's attributional style
        
        Parents: If they hold a fixed view of ability, beliefs can act as self-fulfilling prophecies; parents believe that they are not capable. We should praise effort not traits.
        
        Teachers: Viewing teachers as positive fosters mastery-oriented attributions; performance can be undermined by adult feedback
        
        ATTRIBUTION TRAINING: an intervention that encourages learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort. Reframing results so that kids begin to attribute their success to both ability and effort, not chance
- - - - More aware of circumstances likely to spark mixed emotion
      - Report experiencing more than one emotion at a time
      - Able to explain emotion by referring to internal states over external factors
  - - - PROBLEM-CENTERED COPING: they appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it. If problem solving does not work, they move to....
      - EMOTION-CENTERED COPING: an internal, private and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome
    - - Well-Regulated: Favorable self-esteem and outlook; upbeat in mood; also empathic and prosocial
      - Poorly regulated: Experience hostile, dismissive parental reactions to distress, kids overwhelmed by negative emotion, interferes with empathy and prosocial behavior
  - - - SELF-REFLECTIVE: can imagine how the self and others are viewed from the perspective of an impartial third person
      - THIRD-PARTY: can view own thoughts, feelings and behavior from others' perspectives
      - SOCIAL-INFORMATIONAL: understand that different perspectives may be due to access to different information
      - SOCIETAL: understand that third-party perspective taking can be influenced by larger societal values
      - UNDIFFERENTIATED: recognize that self and others can have different perspectives, but confuse the two
      - Factors that contribute to individual differences in perspective taking: having adults and peers explain their viewpoint; ability to take perspective of others; great difficulty imagining others' thoughts and feelings
- - - - When faced with conflicting moral and personal concerns, children typically decide in favor of kindness and fairness, typically see a decline in prejudice
  - - - Preschool and school age children: Anthropomorphic, a parentlike figure in the sky
      - Adolescents: Abstract, mystical view. God is formless, all knowing (omniscient) and all-powerful (omnipotent) and transcending the limits of time
  - - - Overly high self-esteem
      - A social world in which people are sorted into groups
      - A fixed view of personality traits
    - - INTERGROUP CONTACT: racially and ethnically different children work toward common goals and become personally acquainted
      - LONG TERM CONTACT AND COLLABORATION - exposing them to broad ethnic diversity; teach everyone to understand and value those differences
- - - - Social consequences: Turn to other low-status peers with poor social skills
      - Emotional consequences: Anxiety, withdrawal, peer avoidance and isolation
  - - - Aggressive girls: full of relational hostility like jealousy, conflict and betrayal. High in personal exchange
      - Aggressive boys: Frequent expressions of anger, coercive statements, physical attacks, enticement to rule-breaking behavior, relational aggression
  - - - REJECTED CHILDREN: get many negative votes/are disliked
        
        REJECTED-AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN: high rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, hyperactive, inattentive, impulsive behavior
        
        REJECTED-WITHDRAWN CHILDREN: passive, socially awkward. Social anxiety, hold expectations for treatment by peers, worry about being scorned or attacked
      - CONTROVERSIAL CHILDREN: receive many votes, both positive and negative; are hostile and disruptive but also engage in high rates of positive, prosocial acts
      - POPULAR CHILDREN: get many positive votes/are well-liked
        
        POPULAR-PROSOCIAL CHILDREN: combine academic and social competence
        
        POPULAR-ANTISOCIAL CHILDREN: athletically skilled but poor students OR relationally aggressive kids
      - NEGLECTED CHILDREN: seldom mentioned, either positively and negatively. Engage in low rates of interaction, but are just as socially skilled and well-adjusted as average children
        
        Interventions designed to help rejected children
        
        Training in perspective taking and social problem solving
        
        Improve quality of parent-child interaction
        
        Coaching, modeling and reinforcing positive social skills
    - - Classroom participation decreases
      - Few friends/feelings of loneliness increase
      - Impairs social information processing, therefore increasing hostility
      - At risk of peer harassment
  - - - Interventions for peer victimization
        
        INDIVIDUAL: change negative opinions of themselves; help them with social skills on initiating and maintaining friendships
        
        ENVIRONMENT-BASED: change youth environments, developing community codes on bullying
    - - 1/3-1/2 of kid are aggression and attempt to retaliate against powerful bullies who respond by abusing them again
- - - - Feminine subjects: reading, spelling, art, music
      - Masculine subjects: maths, sciences, athletics, mechanical skills
  - - - Gender contentedness
      - Felt pressure to conform to gender roles
      - Gender typicality
    - - Providing therapy for engaging in traditional gender-role activities, so that they feel more compatible with same sex peers
      - Intervening with people to help them become more accepting of children's gender-atypical interests and behaviors
- - - - Older children: depressed mood, decline in school performance, become unruly, and escaping into undesirable peer activities
      - Younger children: Blame themselves for a marital breakup, fear that parents will abandon them, show anxiety, fear, anger and defiance
    - - Girls: Internalizing reactions (crying, self-criticism, withdrawal)
      - Boys: increased risk for adjustment problems. More active and noncompliant. Higher rates of impulsivity, defiance and aggression.
      - Both sexes show demanding, attention getting behavior
      - Boys reeive less emotional support from mothers, teachers and peers
    - - Girls: Protects against early sexual activity and unhappy romantic involvements
      - Boys: Increase overall psychological wellbeing. Greater economic security and image of authority seems to help in engaging in effective parenting with sons
    - - Emphasize the permanence of the divorce
      - Respond sympathetically to children's feelings
      - Explain the divorce and tell children what to expect
      - Engage in authoritative parenting
      - Provide kids with as much continuity, familiarity, and predictability as possible
      - Promote a continuing relationship with both parents
      - Shield children from conflict
  - - - Switching to stepparents' new rules and expectations can be stressful; kids often regard stepparents as intruders
      - How well new relationship between kids and new step-parents form
    - - Adjustment of boys: quick and welcoming if stepfather is warm; decreased friction between mothers and sons as mum has support
      - Adjustment of girls: stepfathers disrupt close mother-daughter relationships where girls react with sulky, resistant behavior
      - Older kids notice and challenge unfair treatment if parents are warmer to their biological children; view stepparent as a threat to their freedom, especially if they had little monitoring in the single parent family
    - - Children living with fathers often start out with more problems
      - Disruption of very close father-child bond due to new marriage
  - - - Flexible schedules
      - Job sharing
      - Part time employment
      - Paid leave when children are ill
    - - Children who fare well: Old enough to look after themselves, history of authoritative parenting, monitored by phone calls, have regular after-school chores
      - Children who fare pporly: young school age, ids left to their own devices are increasingly likely to bend to peer pressure and engage in antisocial behavior
- - - - Symptoms associated with school phobia: severe apprehension about attending school, accompanied by physical complaints (dizziness, nausea, stomachaches and vomiting)
        
        Treatments for school phobia
        
        Early childhood: family therapy, addressing parental overprotection
        
        Later childhood/adolescence: change in school environment or parenting practices may be needed; firm insistence that the child return to school; training in how to cope with difficult situations
  - - - Younger children: sleep difficulties, loss of appetite, generalized fearfulness
      - Adolescents: run away, show suicidal reactions, substance abuse and delinquency
  - - - Family characteristics: warm and trusting relationship with at least 1 parents; authoritative parenting, positive discipline, warm supportive sibling relationships
      - School characteristics: high quality after-school programs, extracurricular activities, lessons in tolerance and respect, warm and helpful teachers
      - Personal characteristics: easy-going temperament, above-average intelligence, favorable self-esteem, persistence when challenged, pleasure in mastery, good self-regulation, flexible coping strategies
      - Community characteristics: youth groups, stability of neighborhood residents and services, warm and positive adults, high quality after school programs