CLASSIFICATION: the ability to focus on relations between a general category and two specific categories

SERIATION: the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length and weight

REVERSIBILITY: the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

DECENTRATION: the ability to focus on several aspects of a problem and relate them rather than centering on just one aspect

Ages 8-10: Better organized, shows landmarks along an organized route of travel, form an overall view of a large-scale space

Ages 10-12: Able to grasp scale (proportional relation between a space and its map representation)

Preschool: include landmarks, arrangement not always accurate, can only work if the map is rotated to a position other than orientation

Cultural variations: non-Western children have more intimate neighborhood knowledge showing a rich array of landmarks and aspects of social life. American kids draw more formal, extended space, with main streets and key directions by missing landmarks

Major limitation: children can only think in an organized, logical fashion ONLY when dealing with concrete information that they can perceive directly...work poorly with abstract ideas.

Major limitation: Kids do not come up with general logical principles that they apply to all relevant situations, children seem to work out the logic of each problem separately

Conservation is delayed in some cultures - taking part in relevant everyday activities helps children master conservation

Going to school increases mastery of Piagetian tasks where kids have opportunities to seriate objects, learn about order relations, and to remember the parts of complex problems

CENTRAL CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURES: Networks of concepts and relations that permit one to think more effectively in a wide range of situations; emerge from integrating concrete operational schemes that result in increasingly complex, systematic reasoning

Different forms of the same logical insight vary in their processing demands with those acquired later requiring increasing working memory

Child's experiences vary widely...children with relevant experiences will master tasks that are relevant

2. CONTROL DEFICIENCY - fail to control/execute strategies effectively

1. PRODUCTION DEFICIENCY - fail to produce strategies when they could be helpful

4. EFFECTIVE STRATEGY USE - use strategies consistently and performance increases

A. Learn about planning by collaborating with more expert planners - organizing tasks, teacher's explanations of how to plan

B. Allowing children to do some planning in groups without being adult led so that kids have the opportunity to brainstorm and work out the details of the plans themselves

Often hyperactive, exhausting parents and teachers and irritating others with their excessive motor activity

Low focus on tasks requiring mental effort; often act impulsively; ignoring social rules; lashing out with hostility when frustrated

Impairment in capacity to inhibit action in favor of thought, resulting in adequacy in self regulation and strategic thinking

Cluster of executive processing problems that interfere with ability to guide one's own behavior

Heredity - ADHD Is pretty heritable. Abnormal PFC activity, brains grow more slowly, smaller volume, thinner cerebral cortex

Environment - Prenatal teratogens linked to ADHD. More likely to come from homes with unhappy marriages and high family stress

Modeling and reinforcing appropriate academic and social behavior

Tendency to experiment with many memory strategies is adaptive so that they can discover which ones work best and how to combine them effectively

Helps to combine items into meaningful chunks, permitting kids to hold onto much more information and to further expand working memory

MOTIVATION is the most important factor in children's memory processing as motivated kids acquire knowledge more quickly but also actively use what they know to add more

Cultural variation: no practical reason to use memory techniques

GROUP ADMINISTERED: large #s of students tested; screen to see who needs more evaluation; useful for instructional planning; can be given by teachers will little training

INDIVIDUALLY ADMINISTERED: increased amount of time; 1:1 evaluation; to give tests requires considerable training and experience; look at behavior as well as answers

Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children - IV: appropriate for individuals for ages 6-16, assesses four broad intellectual factors - verbal reasoning, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed, first test to be standardized on samples representing the total population of the US, including ethnic minorities

Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Revised: appropriate for children 2 years 6 months through 7 years 3 months

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: appropriate for individuals between 2 years of age and adulthood, assesses five broad intellectual factors - general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and basic information processing

Identifying the processing skills that test poorly will give us information about how to intervene

Major shortcoming: It regards intelligence as entirely due to causes within the child disregards how cultural and situational factors affect children's thinking

CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE: think more skillfully than others when faced with novelty

PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE: ability to adapt to, shape or select environments

ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE: the information processing strategies that underlie all intelligent acts, such as, applying strategies, self-regulation, acquiring task-relevant and cognitive knowledge

Primarily influenced by cultural values and learning opportunities

SES differences: middle-SES kids outperform low-SES kids by an average of 9 points. When SES is matched, difference in black-white kids is discovered by 1/3

Ethnic differences: black kids score 10-12 points below, Hispanic kids score 5-7 points below white average

Kinship studies and role of heredity in IQ: IQs of identical twins are more similar than those of fraternal twins, leading researchers to believe that heredity counts for 50% of IQ. Heritability of children's intelligence rises with parental education and income-conditions tat enable kids to realize their genetic potential

Adoption studies and contribution of environmental factors in IQ: IQs of adopted kids increased compared with IQs of nonadopted children remaining in deprived families. Children of the low-IQ biological mother scored above average in IQ if they were adopted by a mum with above average IQ.

Increase in IQ tests scores with each generation: Generational rise in average IQ, supporting idea of importance of role of environmental factors - increased quality of nutrition and education, technological advances and an increase in cognitively demanding leisure activities.

Controversy around this: If IQ represents success in a culture, it is really biased? Lack of exposure to knowledge and communication styles, negative stereotypes can undermine children's performance

Ethnic minority parents without extensive schooling prefer a COLLABORATIVE style of communication. With increasing education, parents establish a HIERARCHICAL stype.

Using nonverbal IQ tests does NOT raise the scores of ethnic minority children - they grow up in less "object-oriented" families, lacking opportunities to use games and objects that promote certain intellectual skills

Kids end up with decreased motivation via self-protective disengagement sparked by stereotype threat that causes students to devalue doing well in school

Less time disciplining, more time teaching and giving individual attention

Better concentration, higher-quality class participation, more favorable attitudes towards school

Traditional Classrooms: teacher is authority for all knowledge, rules and decision making and does most of the talking. Students are passive and follow direction of teacher. Progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace to a uniform set of standards for their grade.

Nature of social-constructivist classrooms: teachers and students working together; as children appropriate the knowledge and strategies generated through working together they become competent, contributing members of their classroom and increase in cognitive and social development

Based on assumption that different people have different expertise that can benefit the community and that students can be experts too

High-achieving, well behaved students: receive increased support and praise from their teachers

Low-achieving, disruptive students: receive more conflicts and criticism from their teachers

EDUCATIONAL SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES: children may adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to live up to them; effects on kids - decreased achievement, respond with intense anxiety and reduced motivation

Use of word-processing programs: write freely, experimenting without worrying about handwriting, easily revised (less worried about mistakes), projects tend to be longer and of a higher quality

Boys: downloading, trading/selling, creating webpages, writing computer programs, data analysis, use spreadsheets

Kids with learning disabilities: 5-10% of school age children, have considerable difficulty with one or more aspects of learning. Achievement is considerably behind what would be predicted on basis of IQ.

Kids with mild mental retardation: IQ between 55-70, also show problems with adaptive behavior

Achievement gains depend on disability severity and the support services available - may be overwhelmed by their peers; best practice is half in, half out programming

Promote positive peer relations - cooperative learning, peer tutoring

CONVERGENT THINKING: involves arriving at a single correct answer - type of thinking emphasized on IQ tests

DIVERGENT THINKNG: generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem

Family characteristics that foster talent: warm and sensitive parents; providing a stimulating home life; devoted to developing child's abilities; provide models of hard work and high achievement; reasonable demands; arrange for appropriate tutelage

Risk factors associated with giftedness: social isolation, hiding of their abilities to better relate to peers, girls report low self-esteem and depression