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Environmental Bioglogy (Chapter 51: Animal Behavior (innate (fixed action…
Environmental Bioglogy
Chapter 51: Animal Behavior
imprinting:
only occur in specific time period (early in the life)
newly hatched birds
salmon use chemicals to find their spawn
habituation:
decrease in response after repeated exposure (getting to be used to it)
working in perfume manufacture
innate
observed among animals of a population, even in different environment
fixed action pattern
:a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
stickleback fish, red color triggers fish to attack
genetic based, instinct, not learn.anything have at day one
classical conditioning (associative learning):
unrelated stimuli
pavlov's dog
Trial & error (operant conditioning):
with positive or negative rewards
Skinner rat
observational learning:
simply watching another organisms and mimicking that
octopus open lid of jar by watching another octpos doing it
insight (problem solving):
the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles
chimp reaches banana by stacking boxes up.
cannot find in lower level organisms without highly developed brain
chapter 52: Ecology and the Biosphere
ecology: the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment
population ecology: factors that affect population size and how and why it changes through time.
community ecology: how interactions between species affect community structure and organization.
organism ecology: how an organism structure, physiology, and behavior meet the challenges posed by its environment
includes subdisciplines of physiological, evolutionary, and behavioral ecology
ecosystem ecology: energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and environment
landscape ecology: the factors controlling exchange of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems
global ecology: how the regional exchange of energy and materials influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere.
earth's climate: 4 physical factors-- temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind
air circular and precipitation pattern: intense solar radiation near the equator initiates a global pattern of air circulation and precipitation
high temperature in the tropics at 0°
the high-altitude air mass dry and descend toward around 30° north and south
absorbing moisture from the land
arid climate--development of the desert
descending air flow toward the poles at latitudes around 60° north and south
air mass rise and release abundant precipitation (less than tropical regions)
cold and dry rising air flows to the poles descends and flows back toward the equator
absorbing moisture and creating the comparatively rainless and bitterly cold climates of the polar regions.
evaporate water and cause warm
wet air masses rise and flow toward the poles
rising air expand and cool--release water
abundant precipitation in tropical regions
air flowing creates predictable global wind pattern
Earth rotation and land near the equator moves faster than poles, deflecting the winds and creating the more easterly and westerly flows
cooling trade winds blow from east to west in tropics
prevailing westerlies blow from west to east in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle and between Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle
latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity
sunlight strikes the tropics most directly
regions lie between 23.5° north and 23.5° south latitude
more heat and light divered there
higher latitude, sunlight strikes at an oblique angle
light energy is more diffuse on Earth's surface
Terrestrial biomes
Desert
Temperature: variable seasonally and daily
cold desert minimum<-30 °C
hot desert maximum>50°C
plant: low widely scattered vegtation
succulent, deeply rooted shrubs, and herbs
adaptations
physical and chemical defenses
most plants exhibit C4 or CAM photosynthesis
tolerance of heat and dessication, water storage and reduced leave surface
precipitation: less than 30cm/year. low and highly variable
animals: water conservation is a common adaptation, and some species obtained water from breaking down carbohydrates in seeds
distribution: near 30° north and south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents
Savanna
precipitation: dry season last up to 8 or 9 months. rainfall averages 30-50cm/year
temperature: 24-29°C. more seasonal variation than in tropical forests.
distribution: in equatorial and subequatorial regions
plant
thorny and have small leaves
fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought
grasses and small nonweedy plants grow rapidly and tolerant of grazing by large mammals and other herbivores
animals
large plant -eating mammals and predators
dominant herbivores are insects, termites
grazing mammals migrate to parts of more forage and scattered watering holes during seasonal drought
Tropical
Forest (The region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south)
distribution: occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions
precipitation
tropical rain forest: rainfall is relatively constant about 200~400cm annually.
tropical dry forests: highly seasonal, about 150~200cm annually with a six to seven months dry season
temperature: high year round, averaging 25~29°C with little seasonal variation
plant: vertical layered
the canopy trees
one or two layers of subcanopy trees
trees grow above a closed canopy
shrubs and herbgs
fewer layer in tropical dry forests. trees drop their leaves during the dry season
broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant in tropical rain forests
animal
estimated 5-30 million still undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
diversity is higher in tropical forests than any other terrestrial biome
Chaparral
precipitation: 30~50cm/year. highly seasonal. rainy winters and dry summers.
temperature: Fall, winter, and spring are cool. average temperature:10~12°C. summer temperature: 30°C and day time maximum can exceed 40°C
distribution: midlatitude coastal regions
e.g. chaparral in north America, material in Spain and Chile, garigue and maquis in southern France, and fynbos in South Africa.
plant
shrubs
some of shrubs produce seeds that will germinate only after a hot fire, small tress, grasses, and herbs. diversity is high.
many species confined to specific relatively small geographic area
adaptation
woody plants have tough evergreen leaves to reduce water loss
some of shrubs produce seeds only after a hot fire.
food reserves stored in their fire-resistant roots enable them to resprout quickly and use nutrients released by the fire.
animals
browsers such as deer and goats
small mammals, amphibians, birds, reptiles, and insects
Temperate
grassland [The region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle]
temperature:winters are cold, below -10°C. summers are hot, approaching 30°C
plants
adaptation
grazing by large mammals prevent woody shrubs and trees
survive periodic, protracted droughts and fire.
e.g. grass can spout quickly following fire
grass and forbs
precipitation: average 30~100cm/year. highly seasonal with relatively dry winters and wet summers. periodic drought
animal: large grazers. wide variety of burrowing mammals
distribution: veldts
North coniferous forest(
evergreen
)
distribution: across northern North America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra
precipitation: average 30~70cm/year. periodic droughts.
temperature: winters are usually cold, summers maybe hot.
e.g. coniferous forest in Siberia:-50°C in winter to 20°C in summer
plant
cone-bearing trees such as pine, spruce, fir. some of them depend on fire to regenerate
diversity is lower than temperate broadleaf forests
adaptation: breaking branches for too much snow. needle- or scale like leaves reduce water loss.
animals: migratory birds in Northern coniferous forests. mammals and periodic outbreaks of insects.
Temperate broadleaf forest
temperature: winter 0°C, summers35°C hot and humid
plants
vertical layers
shrub layer
closed canopy
herb layer
few epiphytes
one or two strata of understory trees
adaptation
dominant plants are
deciduous
trees which drop leaves before winter. reduce photosynthesis in winter because uptake water from frozen soil is difficult.
precipitation: average 70~over200 cm/year. fall during all seasons including summer rain and winter snow.
animals
bird species migrate to warmer climates.
insects
mammals hibernate in winters.
distribution: mainly at midlatitudes in northern hemisphere.
tundra
(alpine)
temperature: winter cold below -30°C. summer average less than 10°C
plants:
mostly herbaceous with some dwarf shrubs and trees and lichens.
a permanently frozen layer of soil called
permafrost
restricts the growth of plant roots.
precipitation: averages from 20 to 60cm/yearly but may exceed 100cm in alpine tundra
animals
caribou and reindeer are migratory
predators
large grazing musk oxen
many birds species migrate to the tundra for summer nesting
distribution 20%of Earth's land surface. alpine tundra on very high mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics
aquatic biomes
lakes
chemical environment: salinity, oxygen concentration, and nutrient contents differ among lake and seasons.
oligotrophic lake
: nutrient-poor and oxygen-rich
low amount of decomposable organic matter in bottom sediments
eutrophic lakes:
nutrient-rich and depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer or covered with ice in winter.
high amount of decomposable organic matter in bottom sediments
cause periodic oxygen depletion
geologic features
oligotrophic lakes tend to have less surface area relative to their depth than eutrophic lakes
oligotrophic lakes may become more eutrophic over time as sediment runoff and nutrients adds.
physical environment
light decreases with depth, creating stratification
temperate lakes may have a seasonal thermocline; tropical lowland lakes have a thermocline year round
water area from a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
dominent autotrophs
limnetic zone: farther from shore, water is deep
variety of phytoplankton, including cyanobacteria
littoral zone: shallow, well-lit waters close to shore
rooted and floating aquatic plants
dominant heterotrophs
fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen
limnetic zone
small drifting heterotrophs or zooplankton, graze on the phytoplankton
benthic zone: bottom, deep and shallow
invertebrates, depends partly on oxygen levels.
wetlands
geologic features
riverine wetlands:
along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams
fringe wetlands:
along the coasts of large lakes an seas. water flows back and forth. includes both freshwater and marine biomes.
basin wetlands:
in shallow basins from upland depressions to filled-in lakes and ponds
dominant autotrophs: most productive biomes on earth.
plants which have adaptations to grow in water or in soil that is periodically anaerobic.
woody plants in swamps, sphagnum mosses in bogs
chemical environment
high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants
water and soils are periodically low in dissolved oxygen
dominant heterotrophs
invertebrates, birds, and other organisms including herbivores and carnivores.
physical environment: inundated at all times or flood infrequently
streams and rivers
chemical environment: the salt and nutrient increases from the headwaters to the mouth
a large fraction of organic matter consists of dissolved or highly fragmented material that is carried by the current from forested streams
headwaters are rich in oxygen. downstream water contain substantial oxygen, except organic enrichment.
physical environment: speed and volume of their flow. stratified into vertical zones
farther downstream: numerous tributaries joined to form river. water is warm and turbid.
head water cold, clear, swift and turbulent
geologic features
downstream wide and meandering
river bottoms silty
headwater narrow, rocky bottom, and alternate between shallow sections and deeper pools
dominant autotrophs
rich in phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants in headwater flow through grasslands or deserts
dominant heterotrophs
diversity of fish and invertebrates, distributed the vertical zones.
estuaries: transition area between river and sea
geologic features
: complex network of tidal channel, islands, natural levees, and mudflats.
dominant autotrophs
salt marsh grasses and algae, including phytoplankton
chemical environment
salinity varies spatially. nutrients from river make estuaries among the most productive biomes like wetlands
dominant heterotrophs
marin invertebrates and fishes uses estuaries as a breeding ground or migrate to freshwater
waterfowl and marine mammals
abundance of worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish species.
physical environment: higher-density sea water occupies the bottom of the channel and mixes little with the lower-density river water at the surface.
intertidal zone: periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
dominant autotrophs
lower zone: highly diversity. marine algae inhabit rocky intertidal zone
sandy intertidal zone: lack plants or algae. in protected bays or lagoons support rich beds of seagrass and algae
dominant heterotrophs
muddy zone: worms, clams, and predatory crustaceans. sponges, sea anemones and small fishes
rocky intertidal: animals have structural adaptation to hard substrate.
geologic features
configuration of bays or coastlines influences the magnitude of tides.
substrates are rocky or sandy.
chemical environment
oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and are renewed with each turn of the tides
physical environment
from upper to the lower zones limit the distribution of many organisms to particular strata.
upper zone experience longer exposures to air and greater variations in temperature and salinity
oceanic pelagic zone: a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic currents
geologic feature
biome covers about 70% of Earth's surface and average depth is nearly 4000m. deepest point is more than 10000m.
dominant autotrophs
phytoplankton including photosynthetic bacteria
chemical environment
nutrient concentrations are lower than coastal waters. lower nutrient concentration in tropic area than temperate oceans.
turnover between fall and spring renews nutrients in photic zones of temperate and high-latitude ocean areas.
oxygen levels are high
dominant heterotrophs
zooplankton. invertebrates and fishes graze on photosynthetic plankton. free-swimming animals: large squids, fishes, sea turtles and marine mammals.
physical environment:greater depths than in coastal marine water
coral reefs: formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals.
geologic features:require a solid substrate for attachment
start from
fringing reef a young, high island
forming an offshore barrier reef
becoming a coral atoll as the older island submerges
dominant autotrophs
unicelluar algae
chemical environment: require high oxygen levels. fresh water and nutrients are excluded
dominant heterotrophs: corals themselves are predominant animals as well as fish and invertebrate diversity
physical environment:relatively stable tropical marine environments with high water clarity. sensitive to temperatures below 18--20°C and above 30°C. deep ocean coral reefs exist
marine benthic zone: consists of the sea floor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neurotic zone and offshore pelagic zone.
geologic features: soft sediment. rocky substate on reefs, submarine mountains and new oceanic crust.
dominant autotrophs: photosynthetic organism, seaweed and filamentous algae.
chemical environment: oxygen is sufficient concentrations to support diverse animal life
dominant heterotrophs: invertebrates and fishes. tube worms nourished by chemoautotrophic prokaryotes that live as symbionts within their bodies.
physical environment: no sunlight, temperature declines but pressure increases with depth.
donation in aquatic bioms
pelagic zone
aphasic zone: little light penetrates
photic zone: sufficient light for photosynthesis
Benthic zone: bottom of aquatic zone, deep or shallow
littoral zone: coast line
thermocline: a narrow layer of abrupt temperature change
Turnover: sends oxygenated water from a lake's surface to the bottom and brings nutrient-rich water from the bottom to the surface in both spring and autumn
dispersal is one factor that contributes greatly to the global distribution of organisms.
dispersal:
the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density
chapter 53 population ecology
density and dispersion
density
of a population is the number of individuals per unit area or volume. it is not a static property
factors impact density of population
emigration
death
birth
immigration
dispersion:
the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of population
uniform:results from direct interactions between individuals in the population
plants secret chemicals to inhibit the germination and growth to prevent competition of resources
animal's antagonistic social interactions. e.g. territoriality.
random: the position of each individual in a population is independent of other individuals
absence of strong attractions or repulsions among individuals
key physical or chemical factors are relatively constant.
clumped: individuals are aggregated in patchs
getting food, share same environmental factors, or associated with matting behavior.
also increase the effectiveness of predation or defense
population growth
model of population growth
exponential model: a population increases in size by a constant proportion at each instant in time.
a J-shaped growth curve when population size is plotted over time.
characteristic
some populations are introduced into a new environment
some populations' number have been drastically reduced by a catastrophic event and are rebounding.
survivorship curves
type II: rodent, invertebrates, squirrel, lizards,and annual plants
constant death rate over the organism's life span.
type III: produce very large numbers of offspring but provide little or no care.fish, marine invertebrates, long-lived plants
drops sharply at the start, reflecting very high death rates for the young
flattens out as death rates decline for survived individuals
type I: humans and large mammals, produce few offspring with good care.
flat at the start, reflecting low death rates druing early and middle life
drops steeply as death rate increasing among older age-groups.
logistic model: per capita rate of population growth approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity (K).
a sigmoid (S-shape) growth curve when population size is plotted over time
growth rate rapidly increases to intermediate population sizes when there is no breeding population of substantial size and lots of resources
growth rate decreases dramatically when population size approaches K.
logistic model and reality
the logistic model assumes that populations adjust instantaneously to growth and approach carrying capacity smoothly.
for reality:there is often a delay before the negative effects of an increasing population are realized .
carrying capacity (K):
the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain
factors affect population growth
density dependent factors
predation
disease or parasite
competitions for resources: food, water, light, shelter
waste
density independent factors
natural disasters
other factors
emigration
moving out
immigration
moving in
metapopulation
A metapopulation is a group of populations that are separated by space but consist of the same species. These spatially separated populations interact as individual members move from one population to another.
human population growth
demographic transition:
the movement from high birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates, which trends to accompany industrialization and improved living condition
associated with an increase in the quality of health care and sanitation as well as improved access to education, especially to women.
in industrialized nations, populations are near equilibrium
the population is already declining in many eastern and central European countries
global population growth occurs in less industrialized countries.
some counties in Africa, the transition to low birth rates has also been rapid, though birth rates remain high in most of sub-saharan Africa.
ecological footprint: summarizes the aggregate land and water area required by each person, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb all the waste it generates.
there is no single carrying capacity.
the quality of life each of us has and the distribution of wealth across people and nations could impact earth carrying capacity.
global human population history
historically human population has grown even faster than exponential growth.
the global human population has grown almost continuously, but it skyrocketed after the industrial revolution
the rate of population growth slowly decreases as a result of decrease birth rates throughout the world.
age structure: the relative number of individuals of each age in the population
example for human population in three countries
United States:
relatively even, until the older, postreproductive ages.
Afghanistan:
pyramid with heavy bottom, skewed toward young.
Italy
: pyramid with small base, individuals younger than reproductive age. future population decrease.