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Chapter 7 - Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood…

- - - - Successful resolution: parents do not criticize/attack them when children fail at new skills and meet assertions of independence with tolerance and understanding.
      - If parents are over- or undercontrolling, then the child feels forced or shamed and doubts his ability to control his impulses and act competently on their own
- - - - Fear
        
        Fear expressions increase during the second half of the first year; most frequent expression of fear is STRANGER ANXIETY
        
        Factors that influence responses to strangers: temperament, past experiences with strengths, current situation
      - Anger
        
        Frequency and intensity of infants increases with age. Babies want to control actions, and are more persistent about obtaining desired objects; get upset when this gets blocked, especially when it comes from caregivers who typically provide comfort. Anger can also be adaptive - when new motor capacities allow angry babies to defend themselves to overcome obstacles, and motivates caregivers to alleviate infant distress.
      - Surprise
      - Sadness
        
        Babies often demonstrate this in response to pain, removal of an object, separation, or being deprived of a familiar, loving caregiver
      - Interest
      - Disgust
      - Happiness
        
        Babies laugh and smile more when interacting with familiar people, strengthening bonds, several smiles develop for different reasons.
    - - Sensitive, contingent caregiver communication, where parents selectively mirror aspects of the baby's diffuse emotional behavior, which helps construct emotional expressions that more closely resemble those of adults.
    - - Embarassment
      - Envy
      - Shame
      - Pride
      - Guilt
    - - SELF-REGULATION: refers to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals
      - EFFORTFUL CONTROL: voluntary, effortful management of emotions, which develops gradually with the assistance of caregivers and the development of the PFC
      - Caregivers can support development of emotional self-regulation by avoiding: responding impatiently, angrily, or waiting too long to intervene inadvertently reinforce baby's rapid rise to intense distress, making it difficult to soothe the baby and for the baby to learn to calm himself.
      - Increased vocabulary gives toddlers more language to talk about their feelings.
      - Temper tantrums occur because toddlers cannot control the intense anger that often arises when an adult rejects their demands
  - - - 3-4 months: babies gaze, smile, or vocalize; expect socail partner to respond in kind; reply with positive faces and voices; more aware of emotional range
      - 4-5 months: babies distinguish between positive and negative emotion; become better at matching specific factial and vocal displays of emotion
- - - - DIFFICULT CHILD - irregular in daily routines; reacts negatively and intensely; highest risk for adjustment problems
      - SLOW TO WARM UP CHILD - inactive; reacts mildly to environmental stimuli
      - EASY CHILD - quickly establishes regular routines in infancy; adapts to new experiences
    - - FEARFUL DISTRESS - wariness/distress in response to intense or novel stimuli
      - IRRITABLE DISTRESS - extent of fussing, crying, and distress when desires are frustrated
      - ATTENTION SPAN/PERSISTENCE - duration of orienting or interest
      - POSITIVE AFFECT - frequency of expression of happiness or pleasure
      - ACTIVITY LEVEL - level of gross motor activity
      - EFFORTFUL CONTROL - capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant, reactive response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response; predicts favorable development
  - - - Advantages: convenient, take advantage of parents' depth of knowledge about their child across many stimuli
      - Subjective and biased
  - - - Pupil dilation
      - Blood pressure
      - Salivary cortisol levels
      - Heart rate
      - Skin surface temperature
      - Pattern of frontal lobe activation
- - - - "ATTACHMENT IN THE MAKING" PHASE: Infants start to respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger.
      - "CLEAR-CUT" ATTACHMENT PHASE: Attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident, and infants display SEPARATION ANXIETY.
      - PREATTACHMENT PHASE: Infants are not yet attached to their mother and do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult.
      - FORMATION OF A RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP: Separation anxiety declines as children gain an understanding of the parent's comings and goings and can predict his or her return.
    - - Eventually becomes a part of personality by serving as a guide for all future close relationships.
  - - - Attachment classifications from the Strange Situation
        
        AVOIDANT: Before separation, these infants seem unresponsive to the parent. When she leaves, they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. Upon her return, they are slow to greet her.
        
        RESISTANT: Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and fail to explore. When she returns, they display angry behaviors, may continue to cry after before picked up and cannot be easily comforted.
        
        SECURE: Before separation, infants use parent as secure base. They are upset by the parent's absence, and they seek contact and are easily comforted when she returns.
        
        DISORGANIZED: When the parent returns, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors, such as looking away while being held.
  - - - Exception is DISORGANIZED ATTACHMENT - they experience negative caregiving, disrupting emotional self-regulation so severely that they are ambivalent to parents; very stable attachment state
  - - - SENSITIVE CAREGIVING: responding promptly, consistently and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly; leads to secure attachments
      - Caregiving of insecurely attached infants: less physical contact, handle babies awkwardly or in a "routine" manner, sometimes resentful/rejecting in the face of infant distress
      - INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY: Sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic appropriate fashion. Separates the experiences of secure from insecure babies.
        
        Flexible and relaxed style of communication where emotional mismatches are accepted and repaired; increased likelihood of returning to synchronous state.
    - - Among maltreated infants, disorganized attachment is especially high.
    - - American infants placed in full time child care before 12 months are more likely to display insecure attachment
      - Factors that influence the relationship between child care and attachment quality
        
        Family circumstances
        
        Quality and extent of child-care
        
        Attachment quality
      - Ways that child-care settings can foster attachment security
        
        Small group size
        
        Caregivers educated about child development and child rearing
        
        Low caregiver-child ratios
    - - Stressors can undermine attachment indirectly by interfering with parental sensitivity, by altering family's emotional climate and by disrupting familiar daily routines.
      - The way that we VIEW our childhoods affects how we raise our children. Being able to discuss with objectivity and balance tends to produce parents with securely attached children.
  - - - FATHERS: energetic, novel play, playmate role, substantial increase in involvement
      - MOTHERS: conversation, gentle play, caregiver role, increased participation in workplace
      - WORKING MOTHERS: play more actively; spouses share in caregiving role more than in past and share household responsibilities
    - - Stresses of parenting role for grandparents
        
        Children typically have a lot of other learning and emotional/behavioral difficulties
        
        Parents interfere with grandparents bringing up children
        
        Increased financial stress
        
        Significant change in circumstances - less time for spouses, friends and leisure at a time that they planned on having more.
    - - Positive: emotional bond grows between siblings; older children offer comfort and are attachment figures; become playmates
      - Negative: Increase in demanding, clingy, naughty behavior. Decrease in attachment security.
      - Ways in which mothers can promote positive relationships between infants and their preschool age siblings
        
        Handle sibling misbehavior with patience
        
        Discuss baby's wants and needs
        
        Spend extra time with the older child
        
        Express positive emotion toward your partner and engage in joint problem solving
    - - Factors that promote paternal warmth
        
        The amount of time fathers spend near infants and giving expressions of caring and affections
        
        Gratifying marriages increase paternal confidence, causing more time spent with and more interactions with infants
- - - - Sex - boy or girl
      - Physical characteristics - big or strong
      - Age - baby, boy, or man
      - Good and badness - I good girl
  - - - Must have representational and memory capacities to remember instructions.
      - Must have a firm sense of self
      - Must think of themselves as separate, autonomous beings who direct their own actions
    - - Ways to encourage the development of compliance and self-control
        
        Respond to self-controlled behavior with verbal and physical approach
        
        Encourage selective and sustained attention
        
        Offer many prompts and reminders
        
        Support language development
        
        Provide advance notice when the toddler must stop an enjoyable activity
        
        Respond to the toddler with sensitivity and encouragement