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Biological Processes (Factors That Yield Environmental Differences…

- - - - Desert
        
        Savanna
        
        Chaparral
        
        Temperate Grassland
        
        Northern Coniferous Forest
        
        Temperate Broadleaf Forest
        
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        Locations:North America & Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra
        
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        Temperature: Usually cold winters & hot summers
        
        Precipitation: Common droughts, annual precipitation ranges from 30 - 70 cm & the U.S. Pacific Northwest are temperate rain forests
        
        Dominant plants: Northern coniferous forests have more cone-bearing trees, like pine, spruce, fir, & hemlock. Shrub & herb are less seen in these forests
        
        Dominant animals: Moose, brown bears, Siberian tigers, & insects
        
        Locations: South Africa, Hungry, the pampas of Uruguay & Argentina, the steppes of Russia, & the prairies of Central North America
        
        Precipitation: Highly seasonal, dry winters, wet summers, & periodic droughts
        
        Temperature: Cold winters & hot summers
        
        Dominant plants: Grasses & forbs that survive droughts & fires
        
        Dominant animals: Bison, wild horses, prairie dogs, along w/burrowing animals
        
        Locations: North America, Spain, South France, Chile, & South Africa
        
        Precipitation: Highly seasonal, rainy winters, & dry summers
        
        Temperature: Fall, winter, & spring are cool
        
        Dominant plants: Grasses, herbs, shrubs, small trees, & evergreen leaves that reduce water loss
        
        Dominant animals: Deer, goats, amphibians, reptiles, birds, & insects
        
        Locations: Occurs in equatorial & subequatorial regions
        
        Precipitation: Seasonal rainfall & the dry season can last up to 8 or 9 months
        
        Temperature: Warm year round
        
        Dominant plants: Plants are thorny and have small leaves. Most of the ground is covered by grasses and forbs (small nonwoody plants)
        
        Dominant animals: Wildebeests, zebras, lions, hyenas, insects and termites
        
        Locations: Gobi desert of north central Asia, north & south latitudes
        
        Precipitation: Precipitation is low & highly variable
        
        Temperature: Variable seasonally & daily
        
        Dominant plants: cacti, deeply rooted shrubs, & herbs. Many of the plants exhibit C4 or CAM photosynthesis
        
        Dominant animals: Snakes, lizards, scorpions, beetles, birds, & seed eating rotants
      - Precipitation: In tropical rain forest -> Constant rainfall (200-400 cm) In tropical dry forests -> precipitation is highly seasonal (150-200 cm) with 6-7 month dry season
      - Temperature: Little seasonal variation. 25-29 degrees celsius. High year round
      - Dominant animals:
        
        There is insects, spiders, arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals. Animal diversity is higher in the tropical forests than in any other terrestrial biome
      - Locations: Equatorial & Subequatorial regions
        
        Tropical Rain Forest
        
        Tropical Dry Forest
      - Dominant plants:
        
        Dry forest
        
        Has fewer layers of trees, trees drop their leaves during the dry seasons, & many thorny shrubs
        
        Rain forests
        
        Has trees that grow above a closed canopy, layers of shrubs and herbs (small nonwoody plants)
    - - SEA LEVEL / EQUATOR
        
        ELEVATION / LATITUDE
        
        MOUNTAIN TOPS / POLES
        
        Tundra
        
        Frozen biome
        
        Precipitation: In between dry & wet
        
        Sub-polar
        
        Temperate deciduous forest
        
        Precipitation: More wet
        
        Coniferous forest
        
        Precipitation: In between dry & wet
        
        Sub polar desert
        
        Precipitation: Dry
        
        Temperate
        
        Grasslands
        
        Precipitation: In between dry and wet. Dry winter & wet summers
        
        Temperate deciduous forest
        
        Precipitation: More wet
        
        Desert
        
        Precipitation: Dry
        
        Tropical
        
        Tropical rain forest
        
        Precipitation: Very wet
        
        Savanna
        
        Precipitation: In between wet & dry
        
        Chaparral
        
        Precipitation: Mainly dry summers
        
        Desert
        
        Precipitation: Dry
  - - - Physical characteristics: Standing bodies of water. EX: Ponds. Light decreases w/depth
    - - 2 Types of lakes
        
        Oligotrophic lakes
        
        Nutrient poor & O2-rich
        
        Eutrophic lakes
        
        Nutrient-rich but often depleted of O2 in the deepest zone in the summer & if covered w/ ice in winter
    - - Physical characteristics: A habitat that is overwhelmed with water & supports plants adapted to water saturated soil
        
        Chemical characteristics: Both H2O & soil are periodically low in dissolved O2 b/c of high organic production by plants & decomposition by microbes. There is a high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients & chemical pollutants
      - Streams & Rivers
        
        Physical characteristics: Speed & volume of the streams & rivers flow. STREAMS - Headwater streams are usually clear, cold, & turbulent whereas further downstream, tributaries may have formed RIVERS - where the water is warmer mostly & more turbid suspended sediment
        
        Chemical characteristics: Salt & nutrient content of streams & rivers increases from the headwaters -> the mouth
        
        Headwaters: Generally O2-rich
        
        Downstream: There may also be substantial O2 except where there has been organic enrichment
        
        Stream
        
        River
        
        Estuaries
        
        Physical characteristics:
        
        A transition area between river and sea
        
        Higher-density seawater occupies the bottom of the channel & mixes w/ the lower-density river water
        
        Sea water flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide & flows back down during the falling tide
        
        Chemical characteristics:
        
        Salinity varies within estuaries (fresh water/sea water) Salinity also varies w/ rise & fall of the tides.
        
        Nutrients from the river make estuaries one of the most productive biomes
        
        Intertidal Zones
        
        Physical characteristics
        
        Periodically submerged & exposed to the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
        
        Upper zones experience longer exposures to air
        
        Chemical characteristics
        
        Nutrient & O2 levels are usually high & are renewed w/ each turn of the tides
        
        The substrates of intertidal zones are either rocky or sandy generally & select for particular behavior & anatomy among intertidal organisms
        
        Ocean Pelagic Zones
        
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        Coral Reefs
        
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        Marine Benthic Zones
        
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  - - - Def: Weather prevailing over a long period
      - Earth's tilt
        
        23.5 degrees
        
        Northern hemisphere is most tilted towards sun: June 21st (Summer Solstice)
        
        Northern hemisphere is most tilted away from sun: Dec 21th (Winter Solstice)
      - How large bodies of water & mountains affect climate change
        
        1) Air mass is filled w/ water vapor
        
        2) As that mass hits the Rockies, air mass is forced up. It cools, then rains
        
        3) There is less moisture is left in the air on the leeward side. This rain shadow can create a desert on the back side of the mountain range
    - - Def: Weather prevailing over a short period
    - - Temperature
      - Precipitation
      - Sunlight
      - Wind
- - - - Definitions
        
        A population's per capita rate gets smaller as population size approaches a maximum due to limiting resources in the environment (K)
        
        The per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity
        
        EX: The paramecium are grown in a constant environment lacking predators & competing species that may reduce growth of populations
        
        EX: With the Daphnias, the population dropped below carrying capacity which made a delay in the population growth until the increased number of offspring were born,
        
        They over went over carrying capacity b/c they were reproducing before they were able to stabilize
      - Factors that affect population growth
        
        Density independent
        
        Def: A birth rate or death rate does NOT with population density
        
        EX from class: A natural disaster could wipe out a bunch of people b/c they happen to be there at the wrong time
        
        EX from book A stress drought could cause a population to die due to lack of water or food
        
        Density dependent
        
        The 6 major density dependent factors that affect population growth
        
        Competition for resources
        
        Examples
        
        Farmers minimizing the competition on the growth of crops by utilizing fertilizers
        
        Competition for jobs in humans
        
        Competition for food in organisms
        
        Disease
        
        Examples
        
        People who live in large populated cities are at higher risk for the flu or tuberculosis when an infected person coughs
        
        The more packed in, the faster the spread
        
        Predation
        
        Examples
        
        A predator that captures more food as the population density of the prey increases
        
        Population increases in the lemmings & other small rodents which lead to density dependent predation by predators including the snowy owl
        
        Intrinsic factors
        
        Example
        
        Reproductive rates of white footed mice in a field enclosure can drop. This drop in reproduction at high pop. density is associated w/ aggressive interactions & hormonal changed
        
        Territoriality
        
        Examples
        
        Space becomes the resource in that is competed for
        
        Cheetahs use a chemical marker in urine to warn other cheetahs of their territorial boundaries
        
        Toxic Wastes
        
        Example
        
        Alcohol content in wine is usually less than 13% b/c that is the maximum concentration of ethanol that most wine- producing yeast cells can tolerate
    - - EX from a video
        
        A man brought 24 rabbits to Australia so that he could hunt them. The rabbits had no natural predictors & the pop. grew at an alarming rate b/c the generations were building
        
        Definitions
        
        A population's per capita growth rate stays the same regardless of population size, making the population grow faster as it gets larger
        
        When a population increases due to there being an abundant amount of resources & organisms reproducing freely
        
        When growth becomes more rapid in relation to the growing total number
        
        The rate of growth increases as the population increases
        
        Exponential growth is Not linear b/c
        
        More people are reproducing
        
        EX from book: A population of elephants in Kruger National Park grew exponentially for ~ 60 years after they were protected. The large number of elephants caused damage to vegetation so the park managers gave the elephants birth control & sent some to other countries
  - - - Beginning of human pop. increase: After the Industrial Revolution & after the founding of antibiotics
      - The human pop. is not going exponentially yet it is still steadily increasing
      - Ecological footprint
        
        Def: The amount of land & water required by each person, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes to absorb all the waste it generates
        
        Ecological footprints in different countries
        
        Developed country: 24 acres
        
        Underdeveloped: 2.4 acres
        
        Land divided equally.: 2.4 acres per capita
    - - The U.S.
      - India
      - China
- - - - Fixed Action pattern
        
        Imprinting
        
        Associative Learning
        
        Trial & Error (Operant conditioning)
        
        Habituation
        
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        Def: A lessened response to a stimulus after repeated exposures to it
        
        EX in video: A stream of hikers take photos of squirrels and those squirrels become used to the traffic so they are more audacious or less concerned around the humans in response
        
        Def: Try & if it doesn't work, try again
        
        Classic EX: Skinner tough a rat how to perform complex behaviors through this method. After Skinner took the rat through a series of learning he left the rat alone & when the green light came on in the cage, the rat touched the lever to make the food come out
        
        Stimulus for behavior
        
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        Type of behavior
        
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        Observed behavior
        
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        Purpose or effect of behavior
        
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        Ex from video provided
        
        Def: The ability to associate one environmental feature with another
        
        EX in book: A blue jay that vomited a butterfly has probably learned to not eat anything of that butterfly's species
        
        Classic EX: Pavlov rang a bell & then gave dogs some meat powder for a series of times, therefore, those dogs began to associate the ringing of the bell with food & they would salivate every time the bell rung
        
        Stimulus for behavior
        
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        Type of behavior
        
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        Observed behavior
        
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        Purpose of effect of behavior
        
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        Def: Not learned behavior but rather, something that happens during a critical period in that organisms lifetime
        
        Behavior from a video: Konrad Lorenz took the mother goose out & took her place during the critical moment of the young geese & consequently, the young geese followed him, thinking he was the mom
        
        Book EX: EX: An animal thinking something else is it's mother
        
        Stimulus for behavior:
        
        The ducklings needing a mother like organism to follow
        
        EX from video provided
        
        Purpose or effect of behavior:
        
        The mother duck not being around for the critical period of the ducklings whereas the cat was
        
        Observed behavior:
        
        Ducklings began to follow the cat around thinking that the cat was the duckling's mother
        
        Type of behavior
        
        Imprinting
        
        Def: A series of acts that occur behaviorally in animals. It is unchangeable & carried out to completion once started
        
        Ex found in a video
        
        EX: Some moths will fold their wings when they detect ultrasonic sounds from predictors such as bats
        
        Part of behavior: The moths fold up, fall to the ground & hide in response to the sounds. Stimulus -> ultrasonic sound. Fixed action pattern -
        They fold, drop, & hide until the bat leaves
        
        Ex in a video: If something were to pull an egg from a greylack goose that was sitting on it, the goose will pull the egg back in to finish incubating it.
        
        Part of behavior: If you were also took something like a golf ball & set it next to the nest, the goose would also pull that in to be "incubated"
        
        Stimulus for behavior: The red color on the other fake fish
        
        Observed behavior: The stickleback fish merely attacks the red halved colored fake fish until the red fish is removed
        
        Type of behavior Fixed action pattern
        
        Purpose or effect of behavior: Defense mechanism
        
        EX from video provided
      - Def: Not a learned behavior. Born with
      - EX of behavior: A hognose snake spits at anything that threatens it in order intimidate the predictor being that the snake does not have poison
        
        Part of behavior: If this snake is messed w/ too much, he'll through his head back, roll over, & starts to smell like it died. This behavior occurs the minute they hatch out of the egg
      - Stimulus for behavior: Need to reproduce
        
        Type of behavior Innate
        
        Observed behavior: A jeweled wasps stings a cock-roach in the head in which the wasps uses it's venom to slightly paralyze the roach. Then the wasp brings the roach it's cave and barricades him in there after the wasp lays it's eggs inside the roach. As the baby wasp hatch, they slowly kill the roach
        
        Purpose or effect of behavior: The cock-roach provides a safe place for the eggs to be laid & later hatched
        
        EX from video provided