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U2 how teachers learn and acquire skills expertise (Theory of Expertise …

- - - - based on the paradigm that argues for the development of learner’s learning strategies.
        how learners structure their learning and their learning environment leads to learner’s greater understanding of what they learn.
        Hence, it is postulated that knowledge is not solely acquired but something that is created and constructed by the learners based on their experiences and prior knowledge, i.e., what learners
        already know.
        
        Based on the above principles, a teacher should design learning and learning environments that facilitate learners to explore knowledge formation and construction.
        Teachers should be creating activities that require learners to think, organise, create and evaluate knowledge and information.
        In short, teachers should be creating teaching activities that facilitate learner’s mental processes.
        
        perspective of professional development, a teacher’s learning should be based on principles similar to those described above.
        Their experiences and prior knowledge are valuable, and can be used as a source of learning and improvement.
        Professional development activities should stimulate teacher’s thinking skills that would be useful to develop learning activities that enhance their learners’ learning and understanding of what is being learnt.
        Experts in the field of education have always emphasised this point the professional development of teachers should benefit pupils and school
  - - - Bandura’s approach - emphasises the individuals’ cognitive and information-processing capabilities that facilitate social behaviours.
        
        emphasises ‘reciprocal determinism’,
        i.e an individual’s behaviours influenced by the environment and the characteristics of the individual
        This means that an individual’s behaviour, surrounding environment and personal qualities influence each other reciprocally.
        
        Four steps of Bandura’s modelling process
        
        Attention ==>>Retention ==>>Reproduction ==>>Motivation ==>>
        
        (attention) requires an individual -- (in order to learn something) must pay attention to the features and characteristics of the modelled behaviour.
        Then in retention, the individual needs to remember the details of the behaviour so that he/she could later recall and reproduce the behaviour if needed.
        In reproduction step -- requires an individual to organise his/her responses to the model behaviour and reproduce the behaviour accordingly. This step must be practised if one wishes to improve his/her abilities.
        The final step is motivation, which is basically a motivation or incentive that drives one to reproduce the modelled behaviour.
        Without motivation, an individual may not engage in the modelled behaviour, even though all the three other steps are available and present.
        
        BANDURA SAYS THAT
        In order to become a complete and professionally developed teacher, a teacher needs to pay attention to his/her learning, which can be reproduced for improving teaching and learning.
        But these would require the teachers to be motivated in order to be engaged in learning and improving oneself as a professional teacher.
- - - - teachers’ professional knowledge = refers to their content and pedagogical knowledge, i.e., their knowledge of subject matter and their knowledge of how to teach their subject matter to their students.
        
        teachers’ professional knowledge = also related to the teachers’ understanding of the curriculum and syllabus, as well as other documents related to the teaching and learning process (such as writing lesson plans and proposals for co-curricular activities).
        
        teachers’ professional knowledge = also means that he/she truly understands how their students learn and also their behaviours, attitudes, psychological and sociological conditions that affect their learning. AND THEREFORE By having the above professional knowledge, a teacher would then be able to plan, develop, organise and implement an educational programme (or project/initiatives) to meet and fulfil the students’ learning capabilities, interests and needs.
        
        Teachers
        
        need to invest their time, commitment and efforts in their professional learning and development.
        
        need to build and develop the required knowledge through various professional journeys, learning and activities.
        
        professional development activities should engage them in meaningful and relevant experiences that enrich their knowledge and skills, and prepare them for their future endeavours as a professional.
    - - professionalism is identified with one’s technical expertise and skills (or technical rationality).
        I.e that they can solve problems with an appropriate theory. And assumes that the problem is identified, that there is a suitable theory and that the theory is used adequately.
        
        Technical rationality is important [based on the premise that knowing is inherent in intelligent actions] (Schon 1983) BUT it does not necessarily lead to complete professionalism, especially when we are dealing with “situations of uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflict” (Schon 1983, 50).
      - Schon: argues that technical rationality is NOT the only grounding of professional knowledge and practice (where technical rationality includes content and pedagogical knowledge)
        I.e Teachers need more for their enhancement of professional knowledge and practice to be meaningful within their context than simply depending on their “technical rationality”,
      - In education, more specifically in the context of teaching and learning where nothing is
        certain and there are always some elements of surprise and conflict, teachers cannot
        depend only on what they have learnt during their training days or education in the
        university.
        In addition, knowledge can also be obsolete as technology and modern knowledge take shape and change very rapidly.
        Even though knowledge gained in their initial training and education forms and shapes the foundation of their knowledge, skills and overall expertise as a teacher, the current challenges are most likely to overwhelm them and render their knowledge quite meaningless.
    - - characteristics of a community of practice
        
        Sustained mutual relationships – harmonious or conflictual .
        
        Shared ways of engaging in doing things together
        
        The rapid flow of information and propagation of innovation
        
        Absence of introductory preambles, as if conversations and interactions were merely the continuation of an ongoing process
        
        Very quick setup of a problem to be discussed
        
        Substantial overlap in participants’ descriptions of who belongs to the group
        
        Knowing what others know, what they can do, and how they can contribute to an enterprise
        
        Mutually defining identities
        
        The ability to assess the appropriateness of actions and products
        
        Specific tools, representations, and other artifacts
        
        Local lore, shared stories, inside jokes, knowing laughter .
        
        Jargon and shortcuts to communication as well as the ease of producing .
        
        Certain styles recognised as displaying membership .
        
        A shared discourse reflecting a certain perspective on the world
      - four types of activities in knowing-in- action,
        
        professional knowledge-based activities, knowledge is gained or acquired from experts who have specialised knowledge and through prolonged periods of training, learning, teaching, discussions as well as all other types of educational engagement, either through an electronic platform or face-to-face.
        eg of Communication and demonstrations are key activities in professional knowledge-
        based activities and programmes.
        
        creative-based knowledge, the knowledge tends to change rapidly and the social interaction between teachers enables meaningful communication through face-to-face and distanced contact.
        In face-to-face professional development activities, creativity and social interactions are required, in which teachers are expected to demonstrate dynamism, being energetic and innovative.
        
        task-based activities, the types of knowledge involved are kinesthetic, aesthetic and embodied knowledge.
        Eg of suitable professional development activities include activities that are face-to-face-based as well as activities that require interaction.
        
        virtual professional development activities, the knowledge focus is explanatory, tacit and codified.
        The social interactions of teachers are mainly on the online platform with the help of technology, therefore the communication can be both synchronous and asynchronous.
    - - Reflection-in-action may help teachers complete certain tasks.
        It is a process that allows teachers to reshape what they are working on while they are working on it.
        Reflection-in-action can also be considered as an ongoing experimentation that may assist teachers to find a viable solution to a professional practice or question.
        This is not a “trial-and-error” method but rather a process of refining actions and decision-making skills through a process of self-questioning.
        One critical aspect of self-questioning is the analysis of actions and decision-making that actually indicates or reflects our knowledge or what we actually know this is called knowing-in-
        action, which is the tacit information that we know about doing something.
      - process of reflective practice
        
        Start by choosing a critical incident.
        This incident could be something that makes you believe you finally did correctly after much ado or it could be something that in the end makes you believe you didn’t do very well (in that case, the incident is that you turned in something that you were not pleased with).
        This incident will likely be reflected somewhere in your process documents maybe it is a poor learner analysis or a schedule that was never adhered to.
        
        Then, think about the components of that incident from two different time frames.
        For example, if it’s something you struggled with and were in the end proud of the accomplishment, try to find that “light bulb” that helped you make sense of it.
        Then, what was it like before that time and what was it like after that time.
        If it’s something that you still did not master, think about what you did and what you could have done.
        Write up that personal discussion (a reflection paper will be in a way a conversation with yourself).
        
        Next, discuss the thinking process that either existed, or needed to exist, between the two time frames. What was not right in the knowing-in-action?
        See if you can find specific examples to link in this discussion.
        And, draw on your resources (book, articles, etc.) that help explain the incident.
        
        Finally, wrap it all up. Summarise your lesson.
        In other words, what have you learnt so that next time your knowing-in-action (or at least your
        reflection-in-action) will be different and will reflect your new understanding.
- - - - these assumptions are based on intertwining of Self-Directed Learning (SDL) and adult learning principles.
      - 1. The need to know
        adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it.
        -One way of realising this awareness is the usage and role of real or stimulated experiences in which “the learners discover for themselves the gap between where they are now and where they want to be”
        -Adults who are goal-oriented appreciate an educational programme that is organised, and has clearly defined elements, which will aid them in knowing why they need to learn.
        learning programmes arouse effective adult development when there are regular feedback mechanisms for students to tell lecturers what works best for them and what they want and need to learn; also a lecturer who hears and makes changes based on student input.
      - motivation
        
        internal pressures are motivating factors for adult learning:
        eg: the desire for increased job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life
        
        these factors motivate them to cope with changes by engaging in learning experiences
        
        6 categories of sources of motivation for adult learning:
        
        Social relationships: To make new friends, to meet a need for association and friendship.
        
        External expectations: To comply with instructions from someone else; to fulfil the expectations or recommendations of someone with formal authority.
        
        Escape/stimulation: To relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of home or work, and provide a contrast to other exciting details of life.
        
        Personal advancement: To achieve higher status in a job, secure professional advancement, and stay abreast of competitors.
        
        Cognitive interest: To learn for the sake of learning, seek knowledge for its own sake, and to satisfy an inquisitive mind.
        
        Social welfare: To improve ability to serve mankind, prepare for service to the community, and improve ability to participate in community work.
      - The role of learner’s experience
        
        :star: Experience is considered as the defining feature in the field of adult learning i.e for most of the time and the kinds of learning, adult’s learning resources are within themselves.
        -THEREFORE the emphasis in adult education is on techniques that tap into the experience of learners and peer learning activities such as group discussion, problem-solving activities and case studies.
        
        :star: adults define themselves in terms of their wealth of experience, which was gradually accumulated in the context of life, AND bring in an abundance of their learning experiences into learning situations, i.e., classrooms
        WHEN -adult learner’s experiences are ignored, devalued or rejected, they will perceive this as rejecting themselves as a person.
        adults need to be able to integrate new ideas with what they already know their experiences if they are going to use the information.
      - Readiness to learn
        -adults are willing to learn things that they need to know in order to cope with real-life situations.
        -The knowledge newly learnt will enable the adults to execute their life tasks efficiently and effectively in their real life and world.
        -These real-life situations are actually termed as “specific life-changing events”, such as marriage, divorce, a new job, a promotion, losing a loved one, or moving to a new city.
        
        -eg: an adult who is about to get married may feel that he needs to be equipped with some knowledge of marriage and of married life so that he would be able to lead a successful marriage.
        -Hence, he would be always prepared to seek that knowledge, which is specific to marriage, from various sources available to him.
        
        may attend attending marriage seminars and courses, and discussions with marriage counsellors.
        
        -The ‘things’ or ‘events’ may not be necessarily need to be learnt at present, but are useful in the future when the need for it arises.
        
        -This assumption can be linked to the situated cognition or situated learning theory where learning is
        essentially regarded as a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living.
        
        by embedding the subject matter in the ongoing experiences and real world challenges of the learners,
        “knowledge is acquired and learning transfers from the classroom to the realm of practice”.
        
        -In this situated learning, adults are aptly able to create their own knowledge out of the raw materials of experiences, in particular the relationships with other participants, the activities, the environmental cues, and social organisation that the community develops and maintains.
        -This leads to meaningful learning culture amongst the members of the professional community as the concept of situated cognition or learning focuses on knowledge that is generated by social, cultural and physical settings and contexts.
        -This means that learning is seen and/or perceived from the individuals’ performance and engagements in the social, cultural and physical contexts surrounding them.
        -eg:, a group of teachers interact amongst themselves through discussions, exchanging of ideas and sharing of teaching resources within their school context in order to enhance students’ learning as well as their own teaching competence.
      - Orientation to learning
        
        adults' orientation to learning are life-centred (or task-orientated or problem-centred).
        -motivated to learn because they believe learning will assist them to perform tasks or deal with problems that they experience in real-life situations.
        -adult learners are practical and relevancy-oriented and must see a reason for learning something, which is related to their work or responsibilities to be of value to them.
        
        seek out a learning experience primarily because they have a use for the knowledge or skill being sought learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself
        
        THEREFORE if individual's needs and uniqueness (interests, abilities, styles of learning) are met, then learning experience will stimulate effective adult development.
      - The learner’s self-concept
        -- the adult learners are actually going through a transition process from being dependent learners (on others) to self-directing and self- managing learners.
        -“Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives. Once they have arrived at that self-concept, they develop a
        deep psychological need to be seen by others and treated by others as being capable of self-direction. They resent and resist situations in which they feel
        others are imposing their will on them.”
        
        -This is a core assumption of adult education.
        
        -SDL (Self directed learning), is “a process in which individuals take control of learning and the initiative without the help of others in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying and locating human and material resources, deciding on the learning methods to be used and evaluating their own progress and learning outcomes”.
        
        -Adults tend to learn autonomously and independently, learning things of most interest to them in ways they find most beneficial.
        -Self-directed learners are also actively making critical analysis, reflection and creative responses to their situations.
        -In this process learners are expected to take the initiative with the support and collaboration of others (teachers) for the betterment of self and society.
        
        5 major strengths of SDL: (Hammond and Collins - 1991)
        
        Promoting empowerment and liberation of both educators and learners,
        
        Ensuring relevancy of learning,
        
        Meeting conventional institutional demands about maintaining academic standards,
        
        Preparing learners for continuous learning, and
        
        Promoting participation and collaboration as important educational and social characteristics.
        
        Characteristics of Self Directed Learners ( Robotham - 1995) With the above strengths, self-directed learners, , would be able to identify some or all of the following :
        
        Ability to identify their own learning needs,
        
        A positive view of their own learning capability based on past experiences,
        
        Ability to set appropriate goals,
        
        Expertise in selecting learning strategies, or even devising new strategies for
        5 particular situation,
        
        Ability to be self-motivated and to be self-disciplined,
        
        Flexibility in setting objectives and choosing learning strategies,
        
        Awareness of how they learn, and their own learning strengths and weaknesses, and
        
        Knowledge and skills in learning.
        
        -Some adults incapable of engaging in self-directed learning because (Lowry 1989)
        
        they lack independence,
        
        confidence or
        
        resources .
        
        -To facilitate self-directed learning among adults, adult educators can assist learners to:
        :star: Help the learner identify the starting point for a learning project and discern relevant modes of examination and reporting.
        :star:Encourage adult learners to view knowledge and truth as contextual, and to appreciate that they can act on their world individually or collectively to transform it.
        :star:Create a partnership with the learner by negotiating a learning contract for goals, strategies and evaluation criteria.
        :star:Be a manager of the learning experiences rather than an information provider.
        :star:Help learners acquire the needs assessment techniques necessary to discover what objectives they should set.
        :star:Encourage the setting of objectives that can be met in several ways and offer a variety of options for evidence of successful performance.
        :star:Provide examples of previously acceptable work.
        :star:Ensure that learners are aware of the objectives, learning strategies, resources and evaluation criteria.
        :star:Teach inquiry skills, decision-making, personal development, and self- evaluation of work.
        :star:Act as advocates for educationally underserved populations to facilitate their access to resources.
        :star:Help match resources to the needs of learners.
        :star:Help learners locate resources.
        :star:Help learners develop positive attitudes and feeling of independence relative
        to learning.
        :star:Recognise learner personality types and learning styles.
        :star:Use techniques such as field experience and problem-solving that take advantage of adults’ rich experience base.
        :star:Develop high-quality learning guides, including programmed learning kits.
        :star:Encourage critical thinking skills by incorporating such activities as seminars.
        :star:Create an atmosphere of openness and trust to promote better performance.
        :star:Help protect learners against manipulation by promoting a code of ethics.
        :star:Behave ethically, which includes not recommending a self-directed learning
        approach if it is not congruent with the learners’ needs.
  - - - 5 factors that can enhance and facilitate learning and development.
        (1) setting a positive climate for learning,
        (2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s),
        (3) organising and making available learning resources,
        (4) balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and
        (5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.