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What are minerals? Where and how do they form? Ask questions to compare…

- - - - If Earth has a magnetic field, then some large body of magnetic material (ferromagnesian) must be moving in a current.
- - - - Igneous Rock
        
        Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava and are named based on their composition (color) and texture (crystal size).
        .
        
        Instrusive: any igneous rock that crystallizes inside the earth's crust, larger crystals
        
        Phaneritic: large crystals, mostly intrusive rocks
        
        Extrusive: an igneous rock that crystallizes outisde or on top of earth's crust, mostly small
        
        Aphanitic: small crystals
        
        Porphyritic: small and large crystals
        
        Ground Mass: smaller crystals filling the space between larger crystals, usually related to porphyritic
        
        Felsic: a high silica rock, tan, white, pink, etc. light colors
        
        Intermediate: some light, some dark minerals, grey, salt and pepper look
        
        Mafic: black, dark grey, lot of Iron or Magnesium in it
        
        Ultramafic: more Fe and Magnesium than Mafic, black and green
      - Sedimentary Rocks
        
        Rocks derived by the weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks whereby sediments/fragments and dissolved products from a source region are transported to and accumulate in a depositional environment.
        
        Weathering: breaking down source rock
        
        Mechanical Weathering: factors affecting the physical break-up of rocks
        
        Frost Wedging: freeze/that cycle (ice expands)
        
        Unloading (Exfoliation): remove overlying rock: less pressure
        
        Thermal Expansion: holt/cold=expand/shrink
        
        Organic activity: plants/animals/humans
        
        Chemical Weathering
        
        Hydrolysis: Feldspar and water break down to clay and ions in solution
        
        Oxidation: Rusting (hematite)
        
        Dissolution: Pitted susurfaces created by ions dissolving into solution
        
        Erosion: particles are worn down and moved away from source rock
        
        Depositional. Environment: where sediments are deposited, continents, marine, or transitional
        
        Color: red/brown = land
        
        Gray = water (Fe doesn’t oxidize)
        
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        Size and sorting: more energy = larger sizes
        
        Large sizes/angular = closer to source
        
        Structures: recognizable patterns/textures
        
        Mudcracks: tidal flats, shallow lakes, desert basins
        
        Ripplemarks: record of waves
        
        Crossbeds: Cross section of ripple marks
        
        Graded bedding: settling out
        
        Fossils: Where does it make sense for animals and plants to live?
        
        2 types of sedimentary rocks
        
        Clastic: Mechanical/chemical breakup of rocks (weathering)
        produces by-products (sediment grains and dissolved
        salts) that are then moved (transported or eroded)
        to new location (a site of deposition).
        
        i.e. sand, decrease in grain size with increasing transport
        
        Chemical: Materials dissolved by chemical weathering,
        eventually precipitate out by either organic or
        inorganic processes, forming chemical sediments
      - Metamorphic Rock
        
        A result of a transformation of a pre-existing rock. The original rock is subjected to very high heat and pressure, which cause obvious physical and/or chemical changes
        
        Granoblastic: oozed pancakes, large crystals w/no gaps
        
        Protolith: the parent rock
        
        Folliated: has layers caused by pressure
        
        Nonfoliated: no layers, usually granoblastic
        
        Foliate Varieties
        
        Slatey Cleavage: first stage of foliation when clay minerals line up
        
        Schitosity: a little more pressure, micah flakes
        
        Banding: even more pressure, lines up micah and quartz
        
        Porphyroblastic: containing crystals (porphyroblasts) that are larger than the enclosing matrix
  - - - How do we know that plate tectonics is true?
      - What is plate tectonics?
      - What causes plate tectonics?
    - - Lithosphere: It describes how our planet breaks apart, changes over time, and helps us predict earthquakes. We NEED a lithosphere to survive.
      - Layers of the Earth: Mechanical vs Compositional
        
        Mechanical:Lithosphere is solid except for molten rock (lava and magma < 0.1% volume). Behaves brittlely at shallow depths.
        Asthenosphere is solid but flows at geological rates (inches per year), and is the source for most magma we see in the crust. Behaves ductilely.
        
        Stress = Force / Area
        Uniform stress is pressure which is equal in all direction and approximates what rocks feel at depth.
        When stress isn’t equal in all directions, three other types of “differential” stresses can occur.
        Strain = a change in size, shape, or volume of a material
      - Lithosphere includes the Earth's crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. ... The Earth's lithosphere is broken into continental plates that move over time.
      - Evidence for Plate Tectonics Theory
        
        Evidence 1: Mountain Building (C-C)
        If TPT is true, then we should see mountain belts where two continents collide.
        
        Evidence 2: Earthquake Depths (O-C)
      - Hypothesis, Theory, Law
      - Geologic Laws
        
        Law or Superposition: Because sediment is deposited in layers, the oldest payers are older than the ones above them.
        
        Law of Original Horizontality: As sediment particles settle out of water under the influence of gravity, sediments usually form horizontal continuous beds.
        
        Law of Lateral Continuity: Sediment extends outward until it thins or by reaching the edge of a depositional basin. As deposition continues, a stratigraphic sequence is produced.
        
        Cross Cutting Relationships: An igneous intrusion or a fault must be younger than the rocks they cut.
      - Unconformities: Surfaces of Erosion
        
        Angular Unconformity: uplift and tilt followed by erosion, structurally detectable
        
        Disconformity: Subsidence and deposition followed by uplift and erosion, followed by deposition, not structurally detectable
        
        Nonconformity: Igneous or metamorphic rock eroded and sedimentary rock deposited on top, structurally detectable
    - - model continental plate convergence, subduction, etc using paper
      - show video clips explaining subduction zones, etc
      - lecture on lithospheric plates
      - constructing a cross section
    - - Our earth is still "alive" with activity.
      - The earth has layers.
      - The earth experiences earthquakes and has many geological features such as mountains and ocean ridges.
      - Fossils are preserved organisms.
      - Some patterns in rocks give you information.
    - - Essential Questions
        
        How are earthquakes related to plate tectonics?
        
        How are volcanoes related to plate tectonics?
        
        What is a transform, convergent, and divergent boundary?
      - Topics
        
        If plate tectonics is true, then some plates are colliding and others are tearing apart.
        
        Earthquakes occur along divergent boundary lines and along transform boundaries between divergent boundaries.
        
        Chains of islands form as plates move over volcanoes.
        
        Magnetic Field Proof
        
        Basalt aligns itself into the direction of the poles. Subduction and the movement of rocks outside the core would cause flow asymmetry in the core and affect pole reversal.
      - Learning Activities
        
        quick math demonstration clearing misconceptions of one Pangea
        
        paper/tape boundary activity demonstrating earthquakes
        
        docu clip of discovery of pangea
        
        mini-lessons on hot spot volcanism, earthquakes, etc.
      - Prior Knowledge
        
        Earthquakes are a natural phenomena on earth.
        
        Volcanoes expel lava from beneath the earth's crust
        
        Tectonic plates have boundary lines that interact
      - How can I use fossils to tell me about a changing Earth?
        What is soil made from? Construct an argument using maps and data collected to support a claim of how fossils show evidence of changing surface and climate of Earth.
        Plan and carry out an investigation to provide evidence that soil is composed of layers of weathered rocks and decomposed organic material.
        
        Essential Questions
        
        Where does soil come from?
        
        What is soil made of?
        
        What information do fossils give us?
        
        How is soil related to fossils?
        
        Topics
        
        Fossil Succession: Fossils found in sedimentary layers at the bottom of a sequence are older than those at the top. Index fossils indicate the age of a rock because they are short lived.
        
        A paleosol is the link between fossils and soil. It is literally, fossilized soil.
        
        Fossils and soils are important because they tell us about climate, and how climate has changed.
        
        Weathering: physical breakdown and chemical decomposition
        Mass Wasting: transfer of rock and soil downslope due to gravity
        Erosion: physical removal of material by water, wind, ice, or gravity
        Fungus “roots” called hyphae breaking down grains of rock …..
        
        Weathering: Weathering causes the decomposition of unstable minerals, formation/retention of stable minerals, and physical changes like rounding edges. Chemical weathering is easiest when a system has heat (for energy) and water.
        
        Best case for weathering: Best case for weathering (most weathering):
        Lots of heat
        Lots of water
        More elevation
        Rock with olivines and pyroxenes (like basalt)
        
        Least weathering: Cold climate
        Little of water
        Low elevation
        Rock with quartz or mica
        
        Bowen's Reaction Series: The more different the “HOME” environment is from the surface of Earth, the less well the rock is going to “SURVIVE” on the surface of Earth.
        
        Soil formation factors: Parent material
        Time (which also depends on geologic and climate conditions)
        Plants, animals, topography, heat, cold, water….
        
        Learning Activities
        
        guided salmon activity
        
        mini-lesson on fossils, erosion, etc
        
        fossil dating activity
        
        soil through a miscroscope
        
        Prior Knowledge
        
        Fossils are preserved dead organisms.
        
        Soil settles in layers.
        
        Weather and other things can cause changes to the environment, soil, rocks, etc.
        
        Where does energy come from? Why does it matter?Ask questions to determine the differences between renewable/sustainable energy sources (hydro, solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, biomass) and nonrenewable energy sources (nuclear/uranium, fossil fuels/oil, coal, and natural gas) and how they are used in our everyday lives.
        Design and evaluate solutions for sustaining the quality and supply of natural resources such as water, soil, and air.
        
        Essential Questions
        
        What are the problems with our energy source?
        
        What other energy sources are there?
        
        How much energy are we using and wasting?
        
        How efficient are we?
        
        How is energy generated?
        
        What are alternatives to coal and other resources that are running out?
        
        Topics
        
        Energy: Energy is measured in Joules (J)
        Energy is Power x Time
        Power is measured in Watts.
        
        Primary Uses for Energy: heating, transportation, electricity
        
        “Clean Coal”
        This is a marketing term and not a real thing.
        It means burning coal without producing air pollution and by capturing all carbon through sequestration.
        This technology has not been developed.
        
        Fossil fuels are running out.
        
        Biomass: When crops and plants are the only things that get burned, there’s no net CO2.
        
        Wind Energy: It’s not SUPER expensive
        It’s working in Europe
        Best conditions: steady, strong winds, hilltops, offshore, low populations, shallow water, not a bird migration route
        
        Learning Activities
        
        mini-lesson on nonrenewables and renewable
        
        research project on sources for energy
        
        comparison of our energy use to other country's
        
        Prior Knowledge
        
        People consume energy through electronics, transportation, etc in order to lead a convenient lifestyle.
        
        There are multiple sources o harness energy from.
        
        Climate change Construct an argument evaluating contributions to the rise in global temperatures over the past century.
        Tables, graphs, and maps of global and regional temperatures and atmospheric levels of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide and methane, should be used as sources of evidence.
        
        Essential Questions
        
        What is climate change?
        
        What causes climate change?
        
        How do we know it's real?
        
        What can we do to prevent its effects?
        
        What is the evidence for it?
        
        Topics
        
        Greenhouse gases: Greenhouse Gases (GHG) like Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O) are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere.
        Trace gases that absorb infrared radiation from the surface of the planet.
        
        Measured by...Wavelengths of light molecules absorb are in the infrared
        Strength of absorption
        Atmospheric lifetime (how long can the molecule absorb heat?)
        
        CO2: It is the primary GHG emitted by human activity (82%)
        Human activity ads CO2 to the atmosphere in 2 ways:
        1) INCREASING the sources for CO2
        2) DECREASING the sinks for CO2
        
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        Carbon Levels
        
        Delta 13 C: Carbon 13 is one of three carbon isotopes (12, 13, and 14). Plants preferentially uptake Carbon 12 because it’s lighter.
        The 13C/12C should decrease in the atmosphere as plant derived fossil fuels are burned. This pattern is tracked over time.
        
        Coral: Corals grow by forming skeletons of calcium carbonate from the ocean water. Growth conditions produce seasonal rings called growth bands.
        Core samples from reefs can be taken without injuring the reef, are x rayed to locate the bands, and bands are chemically analyzed.
        
        Just like a rock core, ice cores record the paleo-environment.
        The snow from each layer turns to ice and traps bubbles and bits of atmosphere.
        
        Fossil Pollen: Pollen is sperm-carrying reproductive bodies with unique shapes depending on the plants they come from.
        They are trapped in ponds, lakes, and oceans, which get turned into rock and samples.
        They let scientists determine the past environment through “counts”.
        
        Effects of climate change: Extreme weather events will increase and grow in strength (heat = energy).
        The heating will get worse if emissions aren’t reduced dramatically.
        Extreme weather, wildfires, decreased air quality, and diseases transmitted by insects and water will become more commonplace as the planet warms.
        Climate will disrupt the growth of food and agriculture.
        Animals and plants cannot adapt fast enough to keep up with the change.
        The natural systems of the Earth won’t buffer us forever.
        
        Ways to offset climate change: Increase Energy Efficiency: Buy energy star appliances, improve insulation of buildings and refrigerations, travel in more fuel efficient ways
        Energy Conservation: Turn off the lights and electronics, choose green products and vehicles
        Fuel Switching: Use wind, solar, geothermal, and hydropower to produce energy
        Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Stop CO2 from being released into the atmosphere after burning fossil fuels at power plants and industrial plants
        
        Learning Activities
        
        climate change psa projects
        
        mini-lessons on co2, climate change, etc
        
        researching ways people are trying to offset climate change today
        
        Prior Knowledge
        
        Certain human activities have a negative impact on our environment.
        
        Pollution is a big issue in our modern day.
        
        Greenhouse gases can negatively impact our earth.