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Social Psychology (Social relations (Prejudice (Component (Affective…

- - - - Affective (prejudice: unjustifiable negative
        attitude towards group, such as racist/ageism/sexism)
      - Behavioral (discrimination: behavioral consequence of negative stereotype/prejudice, negative action)
      - Cognitive (stereotype: generalization where identical characteristics are assigned to all members of group)
    - - Economic/Political competition/conflict (exploitation/differences in ideology/scarce resource), displaced aggression (scapegoat theory), maintenance of status/self-image, dispositional prejudice, conformity to existing social norms
    - - Contact hypothesis, re-categorization
  - - - Friendship/Attraction
        
        Proximity, reward theory, matching phenomenon, similarity and attractiveness
      - Marital dissolution
        
        Individualistic cultures (values feelings over commitment), age (young marriage), education (not well-educated/similarly educated), values (not religiously committed), dissimilarity (in age/faith/education), detachment process (ceased feeling affection)
  - - - Social Exchange Theory (interactions are transactions, maximize rewards/minimize cost, external/internal rewards, improve image, receive appreciation/friendship/approval, self-satisfaction/self-fulfillment)
      - Social norm (social expectations for proper behaviour/ought,
        reciprocity norms to return help for healthy community)
      - Social responsibility norm (expectation/belief to help those dependent, tied to attribution)
    - - Bystander effect
      - Assuming responsibility
        
        Responsibility diffusion, pro-social models
    - - Who: personality trait (positive emotionality/empathy/self-efficacy), religious faith
      - Factor: reduce ambiguity/increase responsibility (personalised appeal), guilt/concern for self-image (door-in-the face technique), socializing altruism (teaching moral inclusion, modeling/learning altruism, attributing helpful behaviour to altruistic motives)
- - - - Self-schema
        
        Beliefs by which we define/perceive ourselves
        
        Social comparison
        
        Upward
        
        When experiencing success/competition and perceive competitor as advantaged to protect self-concept
        
        Downward
        
        Feel better by taking pleasure in others' failures
      - Culture
        
        Individualism
        
        Independent, Western, focus on self, personal identity, self-esteem persists more when failing
        
        Collectivism
        
        Interdependent, Asian, focus on group, social/group identity, self-esteem persists more when succeeding
    - - Misattribution, planning fallacy, affective forecasting
    - - Self-evaluation/Sense of self-worth
      - Social rejection
      - Low self-esteem
        
        Earn less, depression, delinquency, drug abuse, poverty and abuse, and vulnerable to clinical problems, anxiety, loneliness, stress, anger and relationship problems
      - High self-esteem
        
        Bullies, gang member, genocidal dictator, obnoxious narcissist (inflated sense of self)
    - - Perceived self-control/sense of competency and effectiveness
      - Locus of control
        
        High/Low and internal/external
      - More persistent, less anxious/depressed, healthier and more successful academically
    - - Tendency to perceive oneself favourably, claim personal credit for successes
      - Unrealistic optimism
      - Self-serving attribution
        
        Attribute positive outcomes to oneself/negative outcomes to other factors
      - False consensus/uniqueness effect
        
        Overestimate/Underestimate commonality of opinions and undesirable/unsuccessful behaviours
      - Importance
        
        Adaptive (reduces depression/stress/anxiety)
        
        Maladaptive (blame/conflict/disharmony)
    - - Desired image to external/internal audience, self-monitoring, impression management (Erving Goffman)
      - False modesty
        
        Self-disparaging to elicit reassurance from others
      - Self-handicapping
        
        Behaviour to create excuse for later failure
  - - - Priming
        
        Cognition/Mental process (activating associations in memory)
      - Intuitive
        
        Controlled/Automatic processing (explicit/implicit thinking)
      - Overconfidence phenomenon
        
        Planning fallacy, confirmation bias (more confident than correct)
      - Heuristics (mental shortcut)
        
        Thinking strategies for quick judgment, schema (framework organizing/interpreting information)
      - Illusory correlation (perception of a relationship where none/little exists), counterfactual thinking, mood, misinformation effect
      - Belief perseverance
    - - Internal/External (dispositional/situational)
      - Fundamental attribution error, correspondence bias (underestimate situation, overestimate disposition when explaining others’ behaviour)
        
        Perspective and situational-awareness (actor-observer/camera perspective bias, perspectives change with time and self-awareness), cultural differences (individualism/collectivism, ethnocentric attribution)
      - Misattribution
    - - Self-fulfilling prophecy
        
        Behavioural confirmation
  - - - Affect, behaviour and cognition (ABC)
    - - Four conditions
        
        Minimal social influences on what we say (expressed attitudes), minimal other influences (eg. religiosity/health) on behavior, examination of behavior-specific attitudes (specificity/relevancy) and attitude is potent (self-conscious/consistency)
      - Theory of Planned Behaviour (3 determinants of behavioural intention)
        
        Attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms and perceived control
    - - When
        
        Role-playing (eg. Stanford prison study), saying becomes believing
        
        Evil/Moral acts (attitudes-follow-behaviour principle,
        lowering of moral sensitivity), interracial behaviour/racial attitudes (legislation, from overt to covert prejudice) and social movement
      - Why
        
        Self-presentation theory (adjust attitude to appear consistent, concerned about what others think, create good impression, feel secure in social identity)
        
        Self-justification, cognitive dissonance theory (lessen unpleasantness by adjusting interpretation of behaviour
        
        Over-justification effect, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation (no reward/externally paid to do), self-perception theory (bribing one to do what he already enjoy, he will see actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing)
- - - - Compliance (publicly acting in accord with implied/explicit request while privately disagreeing)
      - Obedience (acting in accord with a direct order/command)
      - Acceptance (both acting and believing in accord with social pressure)
    - - Muserif Sherif on norm formation
        
        Norms emerge and perpetuate through power of social influence, perpetuation of false beliefs and chameleon effect
      - Solomon Asch on group pressure
        
        Conform even to minimal pressure, situations in which group’s judgment obviously incorrect
      - Stanley Milgram on obedience
        
        Extreme form of compliance (obedience) from victim’s distance, closeness/legitimacy of authority (physical presence), institutional authority (social power), liberating effects of group influence (constructive conformity) and powerful social pressure overcame victim’s pleas
    - - Factors: group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, public response, prior commitment to position
      - Who: personality (weak link, predicts behaviour when social influences are weak), culture (individualist/collectivist), social role
      - Being different: reactance (defy coercion to maintain sense of freedom, asserting uniqueness/individuality)
    - - Normative (fulfil expectations, gain acceptance/approval, avoid rejection, social image)
      - Informative (accept evidence about reality provided by others, concern about being right)
  - - - Central route (focus on arguments)
      - Peripheral route (influenced by incidental cues/heuristics/ attractiveness)
    - - Communicator (credibility, attractiveness/liking)
      - Message content (reason/emotion, primacy-first/recency-last effect, good feeling/humour/fear)
      - Communication channel (personal/media learning, active experience/passive reception, written/spoken)
      - Audience (Characteristics like age/self-esteem/maturity/profile, uninvolved audience uses peripheral cue)
        
        Life cycle/generational explanation (attitudes change when growing older/reflect those adopted when young)
    - - Distinctive ritual/belief related to specific devotion, isolation and charismatic leader
    - - Attitude inoculation (stimulate commitment by challenge belief/developing counterargument, forewarning, inoculation programme)
      - Attitudes follow behaviour (compliance breeds acceptance, compliance technique/foot-in-the-door, principles of effective persuasion