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Intro. to Psychology (Cognition (Models of intelligence (Sternberg's…

- - - - Creative
      - Practical
      - Analytic
  - - - Confirmation bias
      - Hindsight bias
      - Anchoring bias
      - Representativeness bias
      - Availability bias
    - - Strategies
        
        Heuristics
        
        Working backwards
        
        Analogies
        
        Breaking things down
        
        Algorithms
      - Obstacles
        
        Mental set, functional fixedness, self-imposed limits
- - - - Transcience, absent-mindedness (including interference), blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence
- - - - Default brain
    - - Circadian rhythm
        
        Shifting forward/back; jet lag
      - Sleep cycle
        
        Stages
        
        Stage III
        
        Stage II
        
        Stage IV
        
        Stage I
        
        REM, non-REM
      - Dreams
        
        Gender differences, culture differences
        
        Origins
        
        LaBerg's Activation-synthesis theory
      - Sleep disorders: Insomnia, sleep apnea, night terrors, narcolepsy
    - - Preconsious memory
      - Subconscious process
  - - - Top-down effect
      - Use in research, pain management
    - - Stimulants
      - Depressants
      - Addiction
- - - - Jung
      - Freud: Id, ego, superego
    - - Maslow
      - Rogers
    - - Bandura
      - Rotter
- - - - Across cultures?
- - - - Stages
        
        Industry vs Inferiority (6-puberty) -- Confidence in work and self
        
        Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescence) -- Sense of self (not fragmented/shifting)
        
        Initiative vs Guilt (3-6) -- Confidence in ability
        
        Intimacy vs Isolation (early adulthood) -- Ability for closeness and commitment
        
        Autonomy vs Shame or Self-doubt (1.5-3) -- Belief in agency to control events
        
        Generativity vs Stagnation (middle adulthood) -- Concerned about others and society
        
        Trust vs Mistrust (0-1.5) -- Sense of safety
        
        Ego-integrity vs Despair (late adulthood) -- Sense of wholeness and satisfaction (vs futility)
    - - Concrete operations (7-11)
        
        Conservation
        
        Mental Operation
      - Preoperational (2-7)
        
        Centration
        
        Irreversibility
        
        Animistic thinking
        
        Egocentrism
      - Formal operations (12+)
        
        Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thought
      - Sensorimotor (0-2)
        
        Object permanence
        
        Goal-directed behaviour
        
        Forming mental representations
      - Criticism: Stages are not abrupt leaps/transitions but more continuous, like waves ("Wave Metaphor")
      - Idea: "All cognitive growth is based on assimilation and accommodation of new information into schemas."
    - - II. Conventional Morality
        
        Stage 3: Good child orientation
        
        Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation
      - I. Preconventional Morality
        
        Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity
        
        Stage 1: Egocentric pleasure/pain/profit
      - III. Postconventional/Principled Morality
        
        Stage 5: Social contract orientation
        
        Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation
      - Critique: Practical value; morality does not correlate with behavior, moral reasoning tends to come after action, so it may simply be rationalisation of emotiona lbehaviour.
    - - Commitment, exploration: Identity Achievement
      - Commitment, no exploration: Identity Foreclosure
      - No commitment, exploration: Identity Moratorium
      - No commitment, no exploration: Identity Diffusion
  - - - Prenatal
        
        Tetratogens
        
        toxins, e.g. nicotine, alcohol, HIV, AIDS
        
        Fetal alcohol syndrome
      - Neonatal (newborn)
        
        Senses
        
        Preference for human faces, sweet tastes, human voices in native language (possibly familiarity from sounds heard in womb)
        
        Social ability (mimicry; synchronicity)
        
        Innate reflexes e.g. postural, grasping, rooting, stepping reflex
      - Infancy
        
        Neural development
        
        Sensitive period -- in some domains stimulation must occur in a certain window for an ability to develop normally; e.g. sight, hearing
        
        Rapid brain development
        
        Maturation; "Genetic Leash"
        
        Contact comfort
        
        Separation anxiety
        
        Attachment styles (Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiment)
        
        Secure
        
        Insecure
        
        Avoidant
        
        Anxious-ambivalent
        
        Culture and attachment (German: encourages self-sufficiency; Japanese: children closely supervised)
        
        Harlow's monkey - baby monkey clings to artifical terrycloth "mother" for comfort instead of wire "mother" providing milk
    - - Language
        
        Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device (LAD) -- language pattern-identifying part of brain
        
        Babbling, practice, grammar (to make sense of vocabulary); telegraphic speech ("cat eat food"), morphemes ("uneaten")
        
        Advanced level: social rules, words describing abstract ideas
      - Types of Parenting
        
        Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, Uninvolved
        
        Differences in: Emotional involvement, authority, autonomy
      - Vygotsky
        
        Help from others via (cognitive) scaffolding
        
        Zone of proximal development - reachable challenges set by surrounding adult experts
    - - Synaptic pruning
      - Body image
      - Sexual orientation
- - - - Differential threshold
      - Weber's Law
      - Absolute threshold
  - - - Figure/ground
      - Closure
      - Grouping
        
        Similarity
        
        Proximity
        
        Continuity
        
        Common fate
- - - - Skinner (cats) (learned helplessness)
        
        Stages
    - - Pavlov (dogs)
        
        Stages
        
        Extinction
        
        Spontaneous recovery
        
        Acquisition
        
        During conditioning (acquisition)
        
        Neutral stimulus, uncondition stimulus, uncondtioned response
        
        After conditioning
        
        Conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
        
        Before conditioning
        
        Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response; neutral stimulus, no response/irrelevant response
        
        Generalisation/discrimination
      - Watson (little Albert)
  - - - Kohler (chimps) (insight learning) (gestalt)
      - Tolman (rats) (cognitive maps)
      - Bandura (BoBo doll) (observational learning)
- - - - Overjustification: shift from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation; subsequent lack of enjoyment without reward. Occurs when reward is given regardless of performance level
    - - Freud's psychodynamic theory
      - Maslow's hierarchy of needs (no reproduction)
        
        Biological needs, safety, affiliation, self-esteem, self-actualisation; later, self-transcendance
      - Modern: Biological, Proximal, Developmental (no self-actualisation)
        
        Hunger
        
        Sex
        
        Sex differences in sex
        
        Perception: commitment? aggression?
        
        Experience
        
        Sexual orientation
        
        Genetic component, social component (?), birth order of males
    - - High ach n, low ach n
      - Needs: achievement, affiliation, power
  - - - Universal emotions
        
        Display rules
      - From infanthood
    - - Cannon-Bard
        
        Emotions arise from cognitive processes (claims physical process too slow to account for split-second emotion)
        
        Conditioned emotional response
      - James-Lange
        
        Emotions arise from physical processes
        
        Mirror neurons, somatic marker