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Chapter 1 - History, Theory and Research Strategies (RESEARCH METHODOLOGY,…
Chapter 1 - History, Theory and Research Strategies
INTERDISCIPLINARY - combination of many academic disciplines working with professionals in different fields.
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THEORIES - must DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN and PREDICT behavior. Theories provide organizing frameworks that guide and give meaning to what we see; give us a sound basis to know how to improve the welfare and treatment of children.
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PIAGET'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY - children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their own world; NOT based on reinforcers. Chief method of study was the use of clinical interviews/
Always a balance between ADAPTATION and EQUILIBRIUM. ADAPTATION - structures of the mind develop to better fit with or represent the world through infancy and childhood; EQUILIBRIUM - process where children revise their incorrect ideas in their efforts to achieve a balance between their minds and the information they encounter in their everyday worlds.
Contributions: Children are active learners, inspired more research, promoted development of children's discovery learning and direct contact with the environment. Limitations: Underestimated competencies of infants and preschoolers, formal operations only achieved in areas where people have extensive education and training, performance on Piagetian tasks can be improved with practice, is this actually developmental?
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NATURE VS. NURTURE?
Stability means that children are high or low on a certain characteristic will remain that way when they get older; early experiences are probably the most useful in establishing a lifelong pattern of behavior - FOCUS ON NATURE
Complex forces of the physical and social world influence our biology and psychological experiences before and after birth - FOCUS ON NURTURE
RESILIENCE - the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development. Researchers are looking for way to protect young people from the effects of stressful life conditions.
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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Medieval times - childhood was a distinct period; childcare manuals common; courts lenient with law breaking youth; laws protected children; artwork shows children playing games and looking up to adults.
Reformation - stressed ORIGINAL SIN - children were born evil and needed to be civilized/tamed via harsh, restrictive child rearing practices
Enlightenment
John Locke - Childs were blank slates, are shaped entirely by experience, can be molded any way that the parent wishes them too. Continuous, many courses, influenced by nurture
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - kids are "noble savages" naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong, innately programmed to develop well, negative influence would be adult training. Discontinuous, one course of development, nature
Rousseau first to describe MATURATION - refers to a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.
Rousseau first to describe STAGES - qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that are characteristic of a period of development.
Scientific Beginnings
Influences of Darwin: (1) NATURAL SELECTION - species survive because they have characteristics that are best adapted to their surroundings; (2) SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST - individuals with the best survival requirements live long enough to reproduce and pass on their beneficial characteristics to the next generation.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION - go into the field and observe behaviors of interest. + direct observation of everyday behaviors that they hope to explain, - people do not always display the same behavior everyday.
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - set up a laboratory situation that evokes behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to respond. + greater control over research situation, permits study of behaviors rarely seen in everyday life, - may see atypical behavior of participants
CLINICAL INTERVIEWS - flexible, conversational style used to probe for the participant's point of view. + large amounts of info in a limited time, permits discussion of thoughts that are relatable to everyday life, - overly flexible so does not lend itself to scientific method, social desirability bias, difficulty with recall.
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS - Interviews that include tests and questionnaires - everyone follows the same process and is asked questions in the same way. + limits bias, more efficient (briefer answers), by eliciting answers, they may reveal things that they may not have thought of during an interview; - do not yield the same depth of information
CLINICAL/CASE STUDY - aim to obtain a complete picture of child's psychological functioning and the experiences that lead up to it. - info collection is v. subjective, results are not generalizable
ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY - aim to understand a culture or distinct social group, achieved through participant observations, where the researcher embeds with the community. - selective observation, misinterpretation, lack of generalizability to other populations/settings.
RESEARCH DESIGN
CORRELATIONAL DESIGN - Gather information on people in natural life circumstances and do not alter their experiences; then look at relationships between people's characteristics and their behavior or development. Identifies relationships between variables, but does NOT identify CAUSALITY.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT: ranges from -1 to + 1, number shows the strength of the relationship between 2 variables, the sign indicate s the direction of the relationship
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN - allows ID of cause and effect via manipulation of variables, eliminate any interference or bias
MANIPULATED/INDEPENDENT VARIABLE - found on x-axis, researcher changes or controlled variable
RESPONDING/DEPENDENT VARIABLE - found on y-axis, variable that investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable
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ETHICAL CONCERN IN RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN: kids are more vulnerable to harm and their immaturity makes it difficult for them to understand what participation in research will mean. After age 7, informed consent should be obtained in addition to parental consent prior to research participation.
INFORMED CONSENT: Parents need to consent and have right to discontinue; all aspects of participation should be explained.
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS: After participating, children should have access to results and any written reports.
PROTECTION FROM HARM: No physical or psychological harm should come from participating; if possible, then other means should be examined.
BENEFICIAL TREATMENTS: Children in control groups should have access to alternative beneficial treatments if they are available.