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Theory of knowledge (Evaluating Sources (Credibility of author (Expert,…
Theory of knowledge
Evaluating Sources
Credibility of author
Expert
Reputable
Impartial
Accuracy
Factual
Comprehensive
Current
Reasonableness
Clear
Plausible
Logical
Support
Justified
Corroborated
Balanced:
Knowledge questions
How to formulate a knowledge question
AOK
Human sciences
Human sciences study human behavior in a systematic way based on observation, and seek to discover laws and theories.
Problems in the Scientific Method
Observation
Questionnaires might be misleading
The observer effect
We cannot observe people's minds
Experiment
Moral considerations might limit our willingness
Law
Generalizations based on weird examples
Measurement
Social phenomena are hard to measure
Examples
Economics
Business Studies
Psychology
Law
Philosophy
Sociology
Human geography
Environmental Studies
Educational Studies
Genealogy
Political Science
Human Sciences vs. Natural Sciiences
Consciousness
Natural scientists study objects and organisms that are unaware of their own existence, human scientists are concerned with organisms that are. In natural science, it is much easier to come up with a set of rules to explain the behavior of physical objects or animals. Whereas compiling a set of laws to account for the behavior of humans is, for the most part, virtually impossible. We all act in a different way, for different reasons.
2.Observer and what is being observed
Natural sciences ≠
Human sciences =
Natural Sciences
Science vs. Pseudo-Science
Science
Biology
Physics
Chemistry
Science disconforms
Pseudo-Science
Acupuncture
Astrology
Creationism
Crystology
Feng shui
Graphology
Only served to confirm beliefs. Pseudo-Science confirms
Karl Popper
Falsification
Scientific Method
Measurement
Observation
Problems
Selectivity
Expectations
3.The observer effect
Induction
Hypothesis
Problem
Conformation bias
Experiment
Law
Problem with Induction
Theory
Repeataility
A branch of science which deals with the physical world
History
Arts
Art vs. Non-Art
For something to be a "work of art" needs to be man-made
The intentions of the artists
Something is a work of art if it is made by someone with the intention of evoking an AESTHETIC RESPONSE IN THE AUDIENCE (the branch of philosophy which studies beauty and the arts)
Criticism
Simply intending something to be art is enough to magically transform it into art?
The quality of the work
A work of art should NOT be something that a person with no talent or training could have made.
A work of art should have some kind of intrinsic quality = beauty
Criticism
A great deal of technical competence but lack originality = Kitsch
The response of spectators
Time reverses the judgement of the foolish crowd.
IGOR STRAVINSKY’S music for the ballet The Rite of Soring was booed off stage by audience.
PICASSO’S Les Demoiselles d’Avignon met with shock and outrage from his contemporaries.
CANON
The collection of works of art considered by scholars to be the most important and influential
Mathematics
Religious Knowledge Systems
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Ethics
Ethics vs Morals
Ethics
The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group or culture.
Greek word "ethos" meaning "character"
Social system – External
Dependent on others for definition. They tend to be consistent within a certain context, but can vary between contexts.
Because society says it is the right thing to do.
Morals
Principles or habits with respect to right or wrong conduct. Can be seen as a personal compass of right and wrong.
Latin word "mos" meaning "custom"
Individual – Internal
Usually consistent, although can change if an individual’s beliefs change.
Because we believe in something being right or wrong.
Morals
Moral Relativism
Our values are determined by the society we grow up in and there are no universal values. Moral values are simply customs or conventions that vary from culture to culture.
Arguments for moral relativism
The diversity argument
The lack of foundations argument
Cultural Imperialism
Arguments against moral relativism
There are some core values that have been accepted by all cultures
We can justify our values
Morals Reasoning
Expect people to justify their value-judgments and support them with reasons
A simple model
Moral principle
Consistency
Nature or Nurture
Self-Interest theory
Human beings are naturally selfish and incapable of meeting all moral values
Definitional Argument
It is true by definition that everyone is selfish
Criticisms
We should distinguish between self-regarding desires and other-regarding desires.
Evolutionary Argument
Human being are naturally selfish creatures who are programmed to pursue their own interests.
Criticisms
Empathy and altruism are as much a part of our biological inheritance as selfishness.
Hidden Benefits Argument
Receive hidden benefits (praise, gratitude, positive image of ourselves) by being nice to others. So as humans only do good will for their own sake, it still can be selfish
Criticisms
Some cases we might not want anything in return as we have another motive.
Fear of Punishment Argument
The man thing that keeps us in line and prevents our doing wrong is fear of punishment.
Criticsms
Not all good behavior is motivated by fear
Utilitarianism
Actions are judged right or wrong solely by their consequences. Right actions are those that produce the greatest balance of happiness over unhappiness. Each person's happiness is equally important.
Bentham and Mill
Divide Command Theory
Moral standards depend on God who is all-knowing. Any act that conforms to the law of God is right; an act that breaks God's law is wrong.
Pollock
Deontonlogy
Emphasis is on moral rules and duty. If the rule behind the action cannot be generalized, then it is not a morally justifiable rule. Emphasis on autonomy, justice and kind acts. People treated as ends, never means.
Kant
Virtue Ethics
Morals are internal to the acting person. Ethics is the result of reasoning; it seeks to produce good people who act well as a result of ethical behavior, and perhaps out of spontaneous goodness. It emphasizes living well and achieving excellence.
Aristotle
Question starter
How
To what extend
Under what circumstances
What role does
How far
TOK Terms
Justification
Validity
Bias
Reliability
Certainty/ Uncertainty
Belief
Evidence
Faith
Value
Culture
Truth
Limitation
Knowledge
Experience
Interpretation
Method
WOK
Sense perception
Sense Perception
Perceptual illusions
Perceptions involves interpretation
Figure and ground
Perception is limited by our sense organs
Visual grouping
Context
Language influences perception
Illusions with other senses
Expectations
Selectivity
Perception is limited by the way our brains work
Plato's allegory of the cave
Three:
-Mechanical
-Chemical
-Light
Nine:
sight, sound, taste, smell, proprioception, equilibroception,
interoception, thermoception
Selectivity of perception
Interest
Culture
Empiricism
Five:
Sound
Touch
Taste
Smell
Sight
Memory
Faith
Emotion
James-Lange Theory
Emotions are affected by beliefs
Emotional Energy
Emotions shaped by culture
Emotion as an obstacle for knowledge
Distort Perception
Negative bias (focus on negative)
Fundamental Attribution Error
Situational
Dispositional
Just World Hypothesis
Irrational behavior
Risk assessment
Apathy
Stoicism
Evolutionary past
Unknown
Control
Immediacy
Salience
Twist reasoning
Rationalisation
Risk assesment
Cognitive Consonance
Cognitive Dissonance
Situations
Types of Intuitions
Subject-Specific
Social
Natural and educated
Emotions as a source of knowledge
Emotional illumination
Source of values
Gratitude
Anger
Pity
Guilt
Rational emotions
Appropiate
Proportionate
Emotional Intelligence
Understand our emotions
Understand other's emotions
Types
Innate or learned
Secondary emotions
Guilt anxiety
Admiration
Pity pridex
Disappointment
Awe Jealousy
Contempt
Primary Emotions
Disgust
Anger
Surprise
Happiness
Fear
Sadness
10 year rule (10000 hours)
Reason
Use
Logic
Comparison
Experience
Rationalism
Deductive reasoning
Deductive argument = Syllogism
Three terms each of which occur twice
Quantifiers
Two premises and a conclusion
Charcteristics
From general to particular
More certain
Less informative
Validity
Conclusion follows logically from the premises
Truth
The premises are true and argument is valid
Venn diagrams
Enthymeme
Incomplete argument in which one of the premises is assumed but not stated.
Belief Bias
Tendency to think an argument is valid simply because you agree with the conclusion.
Invalid Syllogism (false)
Inductive reasoning
Charcateristics
From particular to general
More informative
Less certain
Generalizations
Number
Variety
Exceptions
Coherence
Subject area
Hasty generalizations
Jump to conclusions based on insufficient evidence
Fallacies
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
Ad hominem
Circular reasoning
Loaded questions
Black-or-White
Special pleading
False analogy
Appeal to emotion
Slippery slope
Red herring
Strawman
false cause
the fallacy fallacy
tu quoque
personal incredulity
Ambiguity
burden of proof
The gambler's fallacy
Appeal to authority
bandwagon
Genetic
Composition/division
no true scotsman
begging the question
appeal to nature
middle ground
the texas sharpshooter
anecdotal
Lateral thinking
Certainty
Imagination
Language
Key Features
Rule governed
Creative and open-ended
Intended
Communication
Speaking
Writing
Other means(e.g. non-verbal)
Theories of meaning
Definition theory
Image theory
Denotation theory
Problematic meaning
Vagueness
Secondary meaning
Ambiguity
Metaphor
Irony
Translation
Problems
Context
Idioms
Untranslatable words
Criteria
Faithfulness
Comprehensiblity
Back translation
Labels/Stereotypes
efficient and economic
Have danger
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Language and Values
Emotionally laden language
Grammar
Weasel words
Revealing and concealing
Types
Language is universal
Linguistic relativity
Characteristics
Contested questions
General questions
Second-order questions
Types of knowledge
Personal Knowledge
Second-hand Knowledge
Knowledge by Description
Experimented Knowledge
Practical Knowledge
Knowledge by Acquaintance
Obstacles
Ignorance
Apathy
Fantasy
Bias
Peer pressure
Shared Knowledge
Personal Knowledge + Language
Dangers
Authority Worship
Groupthink
Power distortions
Fragmentation
Knowledge and Belief
Knowledge
Justified
True
With no doubt (certainty)
By correspondence or coherence
3 theories of reality
Common sense realism
Scientific realism
Phenomenalism
Knowledge Claim
Belief
A vague belief
A well-supported belief
A belief beyond reasonable doubt