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Theory Of Knowledge : (TOK Terms (Empiricism, Justification, Validity,…

- - - - Groupthink
      - Power distortions
      - Authority Worship
      - Fragmentation
  - - - First Hand Knowledge = Knowledge by acquaintance + Practical Knowledge
    - - Knowledge by Description
    - - Ignorance
      - Apathy
      - Fantasy
      - Bias
      - Peer Pressure
- - - - Three (mechanical, chemical, light)
      - Nine (sight, sound, touch, smell, taste, proprioception, equilibrium, interception, thermoception)
      - Five (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell)
    - - Plato's Allegory Of The Cave
      - Theories of Reality
        
        Scientific Realism
        
        Phenomenalism
        
        Common-sense realism
    - - Visual Grouping
      - Expectations
      - Figure and ground
      - Illusions with other senses
      - Context
      - Brain Function (visual agnosia)
    - - Interests
      - Culture
  - - - the way of knowing which involves trying to make sense of the world using logic, comparison, and experience.
    - - school of philosophy according to which reason is the most important WOK.
        
        Certainty - René Descartes (1596 - 1650)
    - - Reasoning that leads from something
        a form of reasoning that moves from general to the particular
      - deductive argument = syllogism
        
        two premises (P) and a conclusion (C) 2. three terms each of which occur twice 3. quantifiers (all, some, no)
      - Example: All teachers can fly.
        Ms. Diana is a teacher. Therefore Ms. Diana can fly.
      - Characteristics
        
        reasoning from general to particular
        
        more certain
        
        less informative
    - - (b)
        
        An argument is TRUE if the premises are true and the argument itself is valid Both premises are true, the conclusion is true and the argument is valid, true.
      - (a)
        
        An argument is VALID if the conclusion follows logically from the premises.
        A premise and conclusion are false, but the argument is valid.
        Both premises are false, the conclusion is true and the argument is valid.
      - Enthymeme
        
        an incomplete argument in which one of the premises is assumed but not stated.
      - Belief Bias
        
        The tendency to think an argument is valid simply because you agree with the conclusion.
    - - Trying to decide if a syllogism is valid may not be easy. Venn Diagrams can help! (John Venn (1834-1923)
      - Example: All As are Bs
        All Bs are Cs Therefore all Cs are As
    - - GENERALIZATIONS
      - Characteristics
        
        Particular to general
        
        less certain
        
        more informative
    - - Falacies are instances in which logic is employed incorrectly.
      - Deductive reasoning = invalid syllogism
      - Inductive reasoning = hasty generalisations
      - Post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore on account of this)
        
        assuming that because an event (A) happens/comes after another one (B) A must be the cause of B
        
        Correlation ≠ Causation
        relationship between two variables A & B
        A is the cause of B
        
        preliminary indication that there might be a causationfurther investigation is needed
      - Types of fallacies
        
        Ad hominem
        
        Circular reasoning
        
        Loaded question
        
        Black or White
        
        Special Pleading
        
        False Analogy
        
        Slippery Slope
        
        Red herring
        
        Straw man
        
        False cause
        
        The gamblers fallacy
        
        Bandwagon
        
        Appeal to nature
        
        Appeal to authority
        
        Begging the question
        
        Appeal to emotion
        
        Anecdotal
        
        Composition/divison
        
        No truescotsman
        
        Burden of proof
        
        Tu quoque
        
        The fallacy fallacy
        
        The texas sharpshooter
        
        The fallacy fallacy
        
        Personal incredulity
        
        Middle ground
        
        Genetic
        
        Ambiguity
    - - Number
      - Exceptions
      - Variety
      - Coherence
      - Subject Area
  - - - Language is intended
      - Language is creative and open-contested
      - Language is rule-governed
    - - Criteria for translation
        
        Faithfulness "the translation should be faithful to the original text"
        
        Comprehensibility "the translation should be comprehensible"
        
        Back translation "the translation back should be similar"
      - Problems with translation
        
        Untranslatable words
        
        Idioms
        
        Context
    - - How to distinguish between meaning vs meaningless words
        
        Definition Theory
        
        Based on definition of dictionary
      - Image Theory
        
        The meaning of a word is the mental image it stands for, for example, you have an image in your mind
      - Denotation Theory: the literal meaning of a word
        
        Criticism connotation , abstract words that don't stand for anything, when someone dies the word becomes meaningless
    - - Causality
      - Time
      - Gender
      - Space
      - Grammar
      - Color
    - - "We can only perceive and think what our language allows us to perceive, think, and say."
        
        Language shapes a person's experience
    - - Universal Language
      - Sapir-Whorl Hypothesis
  - - - Emotional Illumination
      - Rational emotions
        
        Appropriate sensitive to the real natura of the situation
        
        Proportionate- have emotions to the right degrees
      - Source of values
        
        Knowing values through feelings
      - Emotional Intelligence
    - - Schachter Singer Two Factor Theory
        
        Physical reaction occurs at the same time as the emotional reaction
      - Cannon-Bard Theory
        
        Physical reaction and cognitive label leads to the emotion
      - The James-Lange Theory
        
        If the appropriate physical symptoms are mimicked, the correspondent emotion is generated
        
        If the physical part is removed, the emotion is gone
        
        Criticism - Emotions are affected by beliefs
    - - Irrational Behaviour
      - Distort our perception
        
        Fundamental attribution error
        
        Just world hypothesis (she deserves to be assaulted because she wore revealing clothes)
      - Stoicism
      - Twisted Reasoning
        
        We judge risks by consulting our feelings rather than statistics
        
        Immediacy Salience
        
        Risk Assessment
        
        Evolutionary Past
        
        Unknown Control
      - Apathy
      - Situational factors
      - Dispositional factors
      - Cognitive consonance
      - Cognitive dissonance
    - - Primary
        
        Sadness
        
        Disgust
        
        Happiness
        
        Fear
        
        Anger
        
        Surprise
      - Secondary
        
        Contempt
        
        Pity
        
        Disappointment
        
        Guilt
        
        Etc
      - 10 year rule
      - Culture shapes emotions
      - Emotional energy
- - - - Ethics is the study of behaviour and values (what right/wrong means and what factors need to be considered in deciding what is right or wrong.
      - Morals is behaviour and values (right/wrong)
    - - Moral reasoning applies critical analysis to specific events to determine what is right or wrong, and what people ought to do in a particular situation.
      - Moral reasoning typically applies logic and moral theories, such as deontology or utilitarianism, to specific situations or dilemmas.
    - - The definitional argument
      - The evolutionary argument
      - The hidden benefits argument
      - Fear of punishment argument
    - - Deontology
        
        Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong. Deontology is often associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as “Don’t lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat.”
        
        Despite its strengths, rigidly following deontology can produce results that many people find unacceptable. For example, suppose you’re a software engineer and learn that a nuclear missile is about to launch that might start a war. You can hack the network and cancel the launch, but it’s against your professional code of ethics to break into any software system without permission.
      - Divine command
        
        Divine command theory (also known as theological voluntarism) is a meta-ethical theory which proposes that an action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God.
      - Moral Relativism
        
        Moral relativism is the idea that there is no universal or absolute set of moral principles. It’s a version of morality that advocates “to each her own,” and those who follow it say, “Who am I to judge?”
        
        Diversity argument, the lack of foundation argument
      - Utilitarianism
        
        Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.
      - Virtue ethics
        
        This character-based approach to morality assumes that we acquire virtue through practice. By practicing being honest, brave, just, generous, and so on, a person develops an honorable and moral character. According to Aristotle, by honing virtuous habits, people will likely make the right choice when faced with ethical challenges.
  - - - Observer effect the tendency of people to behave differently when they are being observed
    - - HASTY GENERALIZATIONS BASED ON WEIRD SAMPLES
        Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democracies
    - - OBSERVATION
        
        We cannot observe people’s minds
        
        Questionnaires might be misleading
        
        The observer effect
      - EXPERIMENT
        
        Moral considerations might limit our willingness to experiment
      - MEASUREMENT
        
        Social phenomena are hard to measure
      - LAW
        
        Generalizations based on WEIRD samples
  - - - Something is a work of art if it is made by someone with the intention of evoking an
        AESTHETIC RESPONSE IN THE AUDIENCE
        
        Robert Hughes (art critic)
    - - a work of art should NOT be something that a person with no talent or training could have made
        a work of art should have some kind of intrinsic quality = beauty
        
        A great deal of technical competence but lack originality = Kitsch
    - - WHICH SPECTATORS? Experts?
        Time reverses the judgement of the foolish crowd
        IGOR STRAVINSKY’S music for the ballet The Rite of Soring was booed off stage by audience PICASSO’S Les Demoiselles d’Avignon met with shock and outrage from his contemporaries
        CANON =the collection of works of art considered by scholars to be the most important and influential
  - - - Experiment, Induction, Hypothesis, Law, Measurement, Observation, Repeatability, Theory
    - - OBSERVATION
        
        Selectivity
        
        Expectations
        
        The observer effect
      - HYPOTHESIS
        
        Conformation bias
      - LAW
        
        Problem with induction