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CH's 42-45 (Ch 43 (definitons/antibodies (memory B-cell (make…

- - - - make antibodies to invading pathogens like viruses
    - - subset of infection
    - - the liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended
    - - a substance that elicits an immune response by binding to receptors of B or T cells
    - - a type of lymphocyte that when activated kills infected cells as well as certain cancer cells
    - - a protein that binds to particular antigen
    - - a type of T cell that when activated secretes cytokines that promote the response of b cells and cytotoxic cells to antigens
    - - a small, accesible region of an antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds
    - - display of the antigen fragment in an exposed groove of the MHC prtein
    - - the host protein that displays the antigen fragment o n the cell surface
    - - a protein secreted by plasma cells that bind to a particular antigen
  - - - cellular innate defenses in vertebrates
    - - use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens before pathogens fully mature
    - - cytotoxic
  - - - Helper T cells do not directly kill infected cells, as cytotoxic T cells do. Instead they help activate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages to attack infected cells
    - - a cell that displays antigen complexed with major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) on their surfaces; this process is known as antigen presentation
    - - b cells
        
        make antibodies, which circulate and bind to antigens
      - t cells
        
        recognize and kill virus-infected cells directly
  - - - the immunity that results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.
        
        gaining resistance to a particular disease
        
        or illness by creating antibodies to the disease or illness
    - - the short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal.
        
        you gained resistance to the disease without having to actively do anything to gain resistance
        
        received the antibodies that you needed to fight off an infection without your own immune system having to create the antibodies
    - - exaggerated responses to certain allergies or allergans
    - - an immunal disorder in which the immune system turns against itself
  - - - the lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels (lymph travels here) and structures that trap foreign substances
        
        lymphatic vessells
        
        return lymph to the blood
        
        everywhere
        
        lymphoid organs
        
        group of innate immune cells that are derived from common lymphoid progenitor
        
        adenoids, tonsils, spleen, peyers patches, appendix
        
        lymph nodes
        
        small, bean-shaped glands throughout the body
        
        everywhere
    - - enables an animal to avoid or limit many infections
  - - - involves B cells that recognize antigens or pathogens that are circulating in the lymph or blood
        
        occurs in blood and lymph
    - - immune system distinguishes two groups of foreign substances: antigens that are freely circulating in the body and group consists of self cells that display aberrant MHC proteins
        
        specialized t cells destroy infected host cells
  - - - immunity
        
        includes barrier defenses, molecular recognition relies on small set of receptor proteins that bind to molecules or structures absent from animal bodies
        
        common to group of viruses, bacteria, or other microbes
      - defenses
        
        activates internal defenses, enabling responses to broad range of pathogens
    - - toll-like receptors (TLR)
        
        a membrane receptor on a phagocytotic white blood cell that recognizes fragments of molecules particular to a set of pathogens
      - phagocytosis
        
        a process where some hemocytes ingest and break down bacteria and other foreign substances
      - lysozyme
        
        an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls
      - neutrophils
        
        circulate in the blood, attracted by signals from infected tissues and then engulf/destroy the infecting pathogens
      - macrophages
        
        larger phagocytic cells
      - dendritic cells
        
        mainly populate tissues such as skin that contact the environment
      - interferons
        
        proteins that provide innate defense by interfering w/ viral infections
      - complement proteins
        
        system of plasma proteins
      - histamines
        
        inflammatory signaling molecule
      - natural killer cells
        
        cellular innate defenses in vertebrates
- - - - how particular animals communicate w/ one another (difference=chemicals made by cells=released into environment)
    - - endocrines produce hormones
    - - neurons produce neurotransmitters (bind to receptors)
    - - water solluable (polar) and lipid solluable (nonpolar)
      - how do they work differently--> water = want to be in water; lipid = right through cell membrane/affect immediately
  - - - parathyroid hormone->raises blood calcium level
    - - medulla
        
        epinephrine-> raise blood glucose level; increase metabolic activities; constrict certain blood vessels
        
        norepineephrine-> raise blood glucose level; increase metabolic activities; constrict certain blood vessels
      - cortex
        
        glucocorticoids-> raise blood glucose level
        
        mineralocorticoids-> promote reabsoprtion of na+ and excretion of k+ in kidneys
    - - thyroid hormone-> stimulates and maintains metabolic process
      - calcitonin-> lowers blood calcium level
    - - insulin-> lowers blood glucose level
      - glucagen-> raises blood glucose level
    - - front portion of pituitary, located in sphenoid bone behind nasal cavity, below hypothalamus
        
        thyroid-stimulating hormone-> stimulates thyroid gland
        
        adrenocorticotropic hormone-> stimulates adrenal cortex
        
        lutenizing hormone->stimulate ovaries and testes
        
        prolactin-> stimulates mammary gland cells
        
        follicle stimulating hormone-> stimulate ovaries and testes
        
        growth hormone-> stimulates growth and metabolic functions
      - hormones released by the posterior pituitary are actually porduced by hypothalamus
        
        oxytocin-> stimulates contraction of smooth muscle cells in uterus and mammary glands
        
        antidierutic hormone-> promotes retention of water by kidneys; influences social behavior and bonding
    - - ovaries
        
        estrogen-> stimulate uterine lining growth, promote development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics
        
        progstins-> promote uterine lining growth
      - testes
        
        androgens-> support sperm function; promote development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics
- - - - b
        
        open circulatory systems
        
        the hemolymph surrounding the body tissues also acts as the circulatory fluid (bugs/bag posing fluid)
        
        closed circulatory systems
        
        interstitial fluid surrounding body tissues is distinct from blood acting as the circulatory fluid (blood vessels)
      - c
        
        single circulation
        
        blood passes through the heart once in each complete circuit
        
        double circulation
        
        the pumps for the two circuits are combined into a single organ
      - a
        
        arterioles
        
        what arteries branch into, convey blood to capillaries
        
        venules
        
        what capillaries converge into, then converge into veins
        
        arteries
        
        carry blood from the heart to organs throughout the body
        
        veins
        
        carry blood back to the heart
        
        capillaries
        
        microscopic vessels w/ very thin porous walls
      - d
        
        two atria and one ventricle
        
        incomplete division allow for adjusting of circulation, enables control of the relative amount of blood flowing to the lungs/rest of the body
        
        ex's
        
        amphibian
        
        two atria and two ventricles
        
        the left side receives and pumps oxygen rich blood while the right side receives and pumps oxgyen poor blood
        
        ex's
        
        mammals
        
        hearts with one atrium and ventricle
        
        only one ventricle is receiving oxygenated/deoxygenated blood
        
        ex's
        
        fish
    - - Liquid transported
        
        2.
        
        gases, cellular waste (well suited to exchange w/ environment)
        
        3.
        
        hemolymph (intersitital fluid)
        
        1.
        
        4.
        
        blood, menstrual fluid
      - Benefits compared to simpler organisms
        
        2.
        
        optimizes exchange by increasing surface area
        
        3.
        
        less costly than closed in term of energy expenditure
        
        1.
        
        4.
        
        relatively high blood pressure, distribution of blood to different organs
      - Phyla that have this type
        
        2.
        
        cnidarians, platyhelminthes
        
        3.
        
        nematoda, mollusca (some), arthropoda, echinodermata
        
        4.
        
        annelida, mollusca (some), chordata, cephlapods
        
        1.
        
        porifera
      - Limitations of this type of system
        
        1.
        
        filter feeder cant choose what you eat
        
        2.
        
        cant circulate it/ floating around- leaking
        
        3.
        
        doesn't get directed gets sloshed around
        
        4.
        
        requires more energy
      - Circulatory System Type
        
        None
        
        Gastrovascular cavity
        
        Open circulatory system
        
        Closed circulatory system
    - - stroke volume (SV)
        
        the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
      - ECG/EKG
        
        impulses generating currents are recorded by electrodes placed on the skin--resulting in this graph
      - heart rate (HR)
        
        rate of contraction/number of beats per minute
      - bundle branches
        
        pathway down through the heart
      - cardiac output (CO)
        
        the volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute (heart rate x stroke volume)
      - Purkinje fibers
        
        electrical signals that go to walls of the heart
      - cardiac cycle
        
        one complete sequence of pumping and filling (1 pump)
      - sinoatrial (SA) node
        
        cluster of cells that set rate/timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract
      - diastole
        
        relaxation phase of the heart cycle
      - atrioventricular (AV) node
        
        relay point where impulses are delayed for about 0.1 seconds before spreading to the heart index
      - systole
        
        contraction phase of the heart cycle
    - - b
        
        Why are arteries thicker and more elastic?
        
        accommodates blood pumped at high pressure by the heart
        
        elasticity allows for when heart relaxes between contractions the arterial walls recoil helping to maintain blood pressure and flow
      - c
        
        How does the structure of these vessels correspond to the velocity of blood and the pressure demands placed on them?
        
        the arteries accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart (blood travels 500 times faster)
        
        the veins being much thinner have smaller total cross section
      - a
        
        arteries v vein
        
        arteries
        
        thick and strong
        
        veins
        
        do not require thick walls (about 1/3 as thick)
      - d
        
        If blood pressure is low in veins, how does blood get back to the heart? Why might this system fail?
        
        failure=vericose veins=veins explode
        
        people who stand a lot, people who dont stand enough
    - - b
        
        Does one’s blood pressure change throughout the day? If so, how so?
        
        yes
        
        standing- head higher than heart, higher chance of fainting
        
        sitting- gravity draws blood downwards, return of blood further enhanced during exorise
      - c
        
        high blood pressure
        
        140/90- anything higher
        
        “hypertension “danger
        
        increases risk of heart attack
      - a
        
        blood pressure measuring
        
        artery in the arm at the same height as the heart
        
        blood pressure cuff
        
        normal blood pressure/ meaning
        
        of a 20 year old= 120/70
        
        120 represents mm of hg at systole
        
        70 represents mm of hg at diastole
    - - b
        
        What two major factors can alter blood flow through capillaries?
        
        constriction/dilation, and precapillary sphincter rings of smooth muscle
      - c
        
        dilation vs constriction benefits
        
        dilation
        
        exposure to heat
        
        ex's
        
        remain warm
        
        constriction
        
        high blood pressure, hypertensions
        
        ex's
        
        if too cold, try to constrict as much contact w surface of skin
      - a
        
        role of blood capillaries/size
        
        microscopic blood vessels that penetrate tissues/consists of single layer of endothelial cells
        
        allow exchange of blood and interstitial fluid
    - - 2
        
        Where does this fluid go next
        
        the lymphatic system
        
        What moves the fluid at this point?
        
        skeletal movement
      - 3
        
        If this fluid does not get moved back into the blood stream, what results
        
        fluid accumulation in the tissues
        
        What condition is caused by worms that block the flow of this fluid
        
        parasitic worms lodge themselves
        
        elephantasis
      - 1
        
        Plasma leaks out of blood capillaries
        
        Where does it go
        
        tissues
        
        What is the plasma called at this point
        
        interstitial fluid
        
        What moves this fluid out of the blood vessels
        
        blood pressure
      - 4
        
        What specifically causes “swollen glands”?
        
        lymph nodes fighting infection
        
        white blood cells multiplying rapidly
    - - c
        
        leukocytes
        
        white blood cells
        
        fight infections
        
        platelets
        
        cell fragments involved in the clotting process
        
        erythrocytes
        
        red blood cells
        
        o2 transportation
      - d
        
        Where are these cells produced?
        
        bone marrow
      - b
        
        What is in plasma
        
        water, salts, enzymes, antibodies and other proteins
        
        What percentage of blood is cellular?
        
        45%
      - e
        
        How long do red blood cells survive? Why?
        
        35-42 due to anticoagulant
        
        120 days
      - a
        
        What are the fluid and cellular components of blood
        
        plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
    - - b
        
        How does one get it?
        
        result from alteration in amino acid sequence of hemoglobin at a single position
      - c
        
        Why does this disease persist in some human populations while in others it has gradually been weeded out by natural selection?
        
        it is beneficial to other populations, in the us it is deadly
        
        as compared to populations with malaria being a larger problem, those w/ this have better chances of survival
      - a
        
        What is sickle-cell disease?
        
        abnormal form of hemoglobin
        
        polyamorizes into aggregates
        
        due to size can distore erthrocyte into elongated curve shape resembling a sickle
        
        Explain the consequences of having it
        
        significantly impairs the function of the circulatory system
    - - b
        
        Why do many world class athletes train in Colorado Springs or Denver, CO?
        
        it is one of 3 official training sites
        
        altitude training has thinner air meaning fewer o2 molecules per unit of volume of air
        
        production of EPO triggers the production of more red blood cells to aid in o2 delivery to muscles
        
        Going to these places increases the production of what hormone?
        
        higher EPO higher chances to outperform competition
      - c
        
        How does this relate to “blood doping”?
        
        this is the practice of boosting the number of red blood cells in the blood stream to enhance performance
        
        higher concentration can improve aerobic capacity
      - a
        
        Why did Lance Armstrong, a Texas hero and world-class athlete, have his seven Tour de France titles taken away?
        
        performance enhancing drugs, blood transfusions
      - d
        
        What exactly did Lance Armstrong do that was illegal, and how is this different from athletes training in Colorado Springs?
        
        used epo transfusions before races
    - - d
        
        causes of a myocardial infarction
        
        damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
      - e
        
        what a stroke is
        
        death of nervous tissue in the brain due to lack of o2
      - c
        
        HDL and LDL cholesterol
        
        HDL
        
        high density lipoprotein
        
        good
        
        scavenges excess cholesteral
        
        LDL
        
        low density lipoprotein
        
        bad
        
        delivers cholesteral
      - f
        
        hypertension
        
        high blood pressure
        
        contributor to heart attack/ stroke
        
        chronic high blood pressure damages the endothelium that lines arteries prompting plaque formation
      - b
        
        atherosclerosis
        
        the hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits
      - g
        
        What can increase the risk of these problems
        
        poor lifestyle and diet, smoking
        
        What can reduce the risk
        
        better lifestyle
      - a
        
        Why is this such a problem? Explain: (below)
        
        poor diet/lifestyle
      - h
        
        Why do you think the prevalence of heart disease has increased in baboon populations in African National Parks over the last two decades?
        
        due to littering of individuals visiting these zoos
    - - b
        
        mucus?
        
        traps dust, pollen, and other particulate contaminates
        
        breathing cillia move it upward to pharynx=swallowed into esophagus into digestive tract
        
        ciliated epithelium along the respiratory tract?
        
        contains goblets which produce mucus
        
        What is the role of surfactant in the respiratory system
        
        mixture of phospholipids and proteins that coat the alveoli/reduce surface tension
        
        oily-helps prevent lung tissues from clinging together w/o lungs could collapse
      - c
        
        Why is smoking the leading cause of lung cancer and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)? What does it do? (42.5)
        
        causes cancer of the body -->damages respiratory tract
        
        causes fatal diseases, the tar encourages development of cancer cells
      - a
        
        Describe the anatomy of the human respiratory system
        
        conveys air to lungs
        
        nasal cavity
        
        phraynx
        
        larynx
        
        1 more item...
    - - c
        
        How do dissolved gasses affect blood pH?
        
        forms carbonic acid then disassociates into bicarbonate ion
      - d
        
        What buffer system helps maintain a neutral blood pH?
        
        cerebral spinal fluid,hypothalamus, pons
      - b
        
        What determines breathing rate – oxygen levels or carbon dioxide levels?
        
        neurons mainly responsible are in the medulla oblongata-->co2
        
        How are these levels detected?
        
        ph of surrounding tissue
      - a
        
        How is breathing controlled in mammals?
        
        involuntary mechanisms
        
        ensure that gas exchange is coordinated w/ blood circulation and w/ metabolic demand
    - - b
        
        How does a bird breathe
        
        use 8 of 9 air sacs situated on either sides of the lungs
        
        to fly birds need a lot of o2 need good circ system to cycle air w/o pushing it out
        
        pass over gas exchange in one direction, incoming air does not mix with other air
        
        c
        
        Explain positive and negative pressure breathing
        
        inflating lungs w/ forced airflow pos
        
        pulling, rather than pushing air into lungs neg
        
        a
        
        How does a frog breathe
        
        ventilating lungs via positive breathing
        
        muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity-->rises-->air then forced back out
        
        d
        
        How does a human breathe?
        
        negative breathing
        
        What exactly occurs when the diaphragm is contracted
        
        muscle contraction expands thorac activity
        
        gas flows higher to lower
        
        thorac cavity expands during inhalation
      - e
        
        Define
        
        vital capacity
        
        tidal volume during max inhalation/exhalation
        
        blowing balloon
        
        residual volume
        
        the air that remains after a forced exhalation
        
        air remaining after long breathe
        
        tidal volume
        
        volume of air inhaled/exhaled w/ each breath
    - - b
        
        Why must animals obtain oxygen
        
        cellular respiration
      - c
        
        How does oxygen get into the blood and carbon dioxide get out?
        
        respiratory system exchanges o2 and co2-- partial pressure simply the pressure exerted by particular gas in mixture of gas
        
        knowing partial pressure can predict net movement
        
        higher to lower pressure
      - a
        
        How do the following organisms obtain oxygen:
        
        tadpole
        
        gills
        
        adult frog
        
        lungs
        
        mammal
        
        lungs
        
        insect
        
        holes all over
        
        earthworm
        
        skin
        
        fish
        
        gilla
        
        squid
        
        gills
        
        crayfish
        
        gills
        
        Which are better, gills or lungs and why
        
        depends on the environment
      - d
        
        How does this explain the apparent difficulty climbers experience at high altitudes, such as on Mt. Everest?
        
        the steepness of the altitude and thin air cause difficulty for this process to occur in a manner we are accustomed to
    - - What is the Bohr shift?
        
        the more acidic acid (co2) the more it wants to drop more o2
      - What is the mammalian diving reflex?
        
        response to environmental changes and adaptations via natural selection allowing prolonging stays under water
      - What color is oxygenated blood?
        
        bright red
        
        What color is deoxygenated blood?
        
        dark red
      - What is myoglobin?
        
        high concentration of o2 storing protein in muscles -- makes muscle darker
      - What is the role of hemoglobin in respiration?
        
        respiratory pigment-->how o2 is carried
      - What is the difference between “red meat” and “white meat”?
        
        breast muscle--weight training=red
        
        cardio--legs=white
- - - - excretory processes
        
        animals across a wide range of species produce a fluid waste called urine
        
        filtrate- the solution formed
        
        reabsorption- recoverse useful molecules and water from the filtrate and returns them to the body fluid
        
        filtration- process driven by hydrostatic pressure
        
        secretion- the solutes and wastes left in the filtrate or added to it
      - survey of excretory systems
        
        metanephridia
        
        earthworms have metanephridia excretory organs that collect fluid directly from the coleom
        
        has both excretory and osmoregulatory functions
        
        nitrogenous wastes remain in the tubule an are excreted to the environment
        
        malphigian tubules
        
        insects and other terrestrial arthropods have malphigian tubules remove nitrogenous wastes and function in osmoregulation
        
        the nitrogenous wastes are eliminated as nearly dry matter along w/ the feces
        
        protonephridia
        
        the flatworm--> consists of units called protonephridia--> form a network of dead-end tubules
        
        during filtration the beating of th cilia draws water and solutes from the interstitial fluid through the flame bulb releasing filtrate into the tubule network
        
        most metabolic wastes diffuse out of the animal across the bpdy surface or are excreted into the g.v/eliminated through the mouth
        
        kidneys
        
        in vertebrates and some other chordates, a specialized organ called the kidney functions in both osmoregulation and excretion
    - - solute gradiants and water consveration
        
        kidneys ability to conserve water is a key terrestrial adaptation
        
        the production of hyperosmotic urine is possible only because of considerable energy expanded for the active transport of solutes against concentration gradients
        
        mammalian kidney
        
        a countercurrent multipliar system involving the hoope of henle maintains the gradiant of salt concentration in the kidney interior
        
        the urea exiting contributes to the os motic gradiant
        
        adaptations of the vertebrate kidney to diverse environments
        
        variations in nephron structure and functionequip the kidneys of different vertbreates for osmoregulation in their various habitats
        
        mammals
        
        the juxtamedullary nephron
        
        kep adaptation to terrestrial life -- enables mammals to get rid of salts and nitrogenous wastes
        
        birds and other reptiles
        
        birds have kidneys with juxtamedullary nephronsthat specialize in conserving water
        
        nephrons of birds have loops of Henle that extend far less into medulla than that of mammals
        
        cannot concentrate urine to the high osmolarities achieved by mammalian kidneys
        
        freshwater fishes and amphibians
        
        hyperosmotic to their surroundings, so they must excrete excess water continuously
        
        their kidneys produce filtrate at a high rate
        
        amphibian kidneys function much like that of fresh water fishes
        
        marine bony fishes
        
        gain excess salts from their surroundings and lose water
        
        have fewer and smaller nephrons and their nephrons lack a distal tubule--filtration rates are low and very little urine is excreted
        
        the main function of kidneys in marine bony fishes is to get rid of divalent ions
        
        from blood filtrate to urine: see figure 44.13
        
        ascending limb of the loop of the hole
        
        4.distal tubule
        
        descending limb of the loop of the hole
        
        collecting duct
        
        proximal tube
    - - forms of nitrogenous waste
        
        urea
        
        land mammals mainly discrete a different nitrogenous waste--very low toxicity--but high energy cost
        
        uric acid
        
        insects, land snails, reptiles
        
        ammonia
        
        animals who secrete this need access to lots of water-->most common in aquatic species
      - the influence of evolution and environment on nitrogenous wastes
        
        immediate environment of the animals egg
        
        the amount produced is coupled to the animals energy budget
        
        endotherms use more energy/eat more food/ produce more waste than ectotherms
        
        the kind of waste depends on the species evolutionary history and its habitat--availability of water
    - - the renin-antiogstensin system
        
        renin initiates sequence of steps yeilding in peptide angiotensin II
        
        raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles
        
        a second regulatory mechanism helping in homeostasis is RAAS
        
        RAAS (renin angiotensinaldosterone system) involves the JGA (juxtaglomerular apparatus)
        
        JGA--> specialized tissue consisting of cells of and around the afferent arteriole
        
        coordination of ADH and RAAS activity
        
        homeostatic regulation of the kidney
        
        a combination of nervous and hormonal controls manages the osmoregulation of the mammalian kidney
        
        antidiruetic hormone
        
        one key hormone is ADH -- antidiuretic hormone also called vasopressin
        
        when osmolarity rises above set point, ADH releases into bloodstream
        
        ADH makes epithelium more permeable to water
        
        instead if you drink more water-->
        
        set point causes a drop in ADH secretion to a very low level
        
        reduces water reabsorption, resulting in discharge of large volumes of dilute urine
    - - osmoregulatory challenges and mechanisms -- osmoconformer isoosmotic w/ its surroundings -- osmoregulator control internal osmolarity
        
        marine animals
        
        most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers-->osmolartiy is the same as that of seawater
        
        marine vertebrates and some marine invertebrates are osmoregulators
        
        freshwater animals
        
        have opp problem of ^^; body fluids must be hyperosmotic--cannot tolerate salt concentrations as low as that of lake or river water
        
        animals that live in temporary waters
        
        dehydration most fatal thing- state in which they enter when habitat dries up is anhydrobiosts
        
        land animals
        
        body coverings help prevent dehydration
        
        maintain water balance by drinking and eating moist foods produce h2o via cellular respiration
        
        energetics of osmoregulation
        
        energy cost dependent on surroundings
        
        cost is minimized by having body fluids adapted to salinity of the habitat
        
        osmoregulators must expand energy to maintain gradiants
        
        osmosis and osmolarity
        
        osmolarity- number of moles of solute per L of solution
        
        isoosmotic-> same osmolarity
        
        hyperosmotic-> two solutions differ
        
        hypoosmotic-> more dilute solution
        
        osmosis- water entering an leaving - two solutions separated by a membrane
        
        transport epithelia in osmoregulation
        
        one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes thelia controlled amounts in specific directions