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Homeostasis (Circulation (Mammalian Circulation (Atrioventricular Valve…

- - - - Circulatory Fluid
        
        Connects the aqueous environment of body cell
        
        To the organs that exchange gases
        
        Absorb nutrients
        
        Dispose of wastes
      - Set of Interconnecting Vessels
      - Muscular Pump
        
        Heart
        
        Powers circulation using metabolic energy
        
        Elevate hydrostatic pressure of the circulatory fluid
        
        Vertebrates Only
        
        Contain two or more muscular chambers
        
        Atria
        
        Receive blood entering the heart
        
        Ventricles
        
        Pumping blood out of the heart
    - - Open Circulatory System
        
        Circulatory fluid bathed the organs directly
        
        Hemolymph
        
        Interstitial Fluid
        
        Body movements help circulate the hemolymph
        
        By periodically squeezing the sinuses
      - Closed Circulatory System
        
        Circulatory fluid
        
        Blood
        
        Confined to vessels
        
        Cardiovascular System
        
        Blood circulated to and from the heart through a network of vessels
        
        Three main types of blood vessels
        
        Veins
        
        Carry blood BACK to the heart
        
        Venules
        
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        Capillaries #
        
        Microscopic vessels with very thin, porous walls
        
        Capillaries Beds
        
        Arteries
        
        Carry blood AWAY from the heart to organs
        
        Arterioles
        
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        Single Circulation
        
        Ex. Bony Fishes, Rays, Sharks
        
        The blood passed through the heart once in each complete circuit
        
        Double Circulation
        
        Ex. Amphibians, Reptiles and Mammals
        
        The pump for the two circuits are combined into the heart
        
        Right side of the heart
        
        Delivers oxygen-poor blood to the capillary beds of the gas exchange tissues
        
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  - - - Hydras, Jellies and Other Cnidarians
      - An opening at one end connects the cavity to the surrounding water.
  - - - Systole
        
        The contraction phrase of the cycle
      - Diastole
        
        The relaxation phrase of the cycle
    - - The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute
        
        Two factors
        
        Heart Rate
        
        The rate of contraction
        
        Resting heart rate of 72 beats per minute for human
        
        Stroke Volume
        
        The amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
        
        The average stroke volume in humans is about 70 ml
    - - Prevent backflow
      - Keep blood moving in the correct direction
      - Atrioventricular (AV) Valve
        
        Lies between each atrium and ventricle
        
        Anchored by strong fibers
        
        Prevent from turning inside out
      - Semilunar Valve
        
        Located at the two exits of the heart
        
        Where aorta leaves the left ventricle
        
        Where pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle
      - Pushed open by the pressure generated during contraction of the ventricles
      - When the ventricles relax
        
        Blood pressure built up in the aorta
        
        Closes the semilunar valves
        
        Prevent significant backflow
      - Heart Murmur
        
        Blood squirts backward through a defective valve
        
        May produce an abnormal sound
  - - - Sinoatrial (SA) Node
        
        Pacemaker
      - Autorhythmic cells
      - Atrioventricular (AV) Node
        
        A relay point for 0.1 sec
        
        Spread to the heart apex
        
        Spread throughout the ventricular walls
        
        Specilized muscle fibers
        
        Bundle branches
        
        Purkinje fibers
    - - Current recorded by electrodes placed on skin
    - - Signals are delayed at AV node
      - Bundle branches pass signals to heart apex
      - Signal from SA node spread through atria
      - Signals spread throughout ventricles
  - - - Contain a central lumen lined with an endothelium
        
        Endothelium
        
        A single layer of flattened epithelial cells
    - - Narrow diameters
      - Thin walls
      - Facilitate exchange
    - - One-way valves that contribute to the return of blood to the heart
    - - Thick elastic walls the maintain blood pressure
    - - Governing the movement of fluids through pipes
        
        Influence blood flow
        
        Influence blood pressure
    - - Returned to blood by the lymphatic system
        
        Parallels the circulatory system
        
        Defense against infection
- - - - Two solutions separated by the membrane differ in osmotic pressure
      - Total solute concentration expressed as molarity
        
        Moles of solute per liter of solution
        
        Unit for osmolarity
        
        milliOsmoles per lite (mOsm/L)
  - - - Control internal osmolarity independent from the environment
      - Salmon migrate between fresh and seawater
        
        Changes in osmoregulatory status
    - - To be isoosmotic with the environment
      - Most marine animals
  - - - Enter a dormant sate when their habitats dry up
    - - Extreme dehydration
  - - - Live in more concentrated environment
        
        Tends to lose water
        
        Gain salt
        
        Drinks water
        
        Smaller volume of urine
        
        Urine is sightly less concentrated the body fluids
    - - Tends to lose body water to air
        
        Drinks water
        
        Salt in by mouth
        
        Moderate volume of urine
        
        Urine is more concentrated than body fluids
    - - Live in less concentrated environment
        
        Tends to gain water
        
        Lose salt
        
        Does not drink water
        
        Larger volume of urine
        
        Urine is less concentrated then body fluids
  - - - Mostly aquatic species
      - easily diluted in water
    - - Less toxic
      - High energy cost
      - Mostly terrestrial species
    - - Very acidic
      - Requires more energy than urea
      - More efficient in conserving water
      - Insects, land snails, birds and reptiles
- - - - The transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances from fltrate
      - Returns them to the body fluid
    - - Toxins and excess ions are extracted from body fluids
      - Added to the contents of the excretory tubule
    - - The excretory tubule collects a filtrate fr. the blood
      - Water and solutes are forced by blood pressure
      - Across the selectively permeable membranes
    - - The urine leaves the system and the body
  - - - Insects/arthropods
      - Immersed in hemolymph
      - No filtration
      - Transport epithelium that lines tubules secretes certain solutes
    - - Chordates
      - Osmoregulation
      - Network of capillaries ducts
      - Tubules processes filtrate
    - - Immersed in coelomic fluid
      - Ciliated funnel around opening filters
      - Earthworms
    - - Flatworms
      - Dead ends tubules with beating cilia inside that filtrates and release urine out
  - - - Ion channels
        
        Impermeable to water
      - Two specialized region
        
        A thin segment near the loop tip
        
        NaCl became concentrated
        
        Diffuses out into the interstitial fluid
        
        Helps maintains the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in medulla
        
        A thick segment adjacent to the distant tubule
        
        The movement of NaCl out of filtrate continues
        
        The epithelium actively transports NaCl into interstitial fluids
        
        Filtrate becomes more dilute as it moving up the cortex
    - - Regulating the K+ and NaCl concentration of body fluid
    - - Aquaporin
        
        Permeable to water
        
        Water moves out using osmosis
    - - Carries the filtrate through the medulla to the renal pelvis
    - - Where reabsorption occurs
    - - The loop of Henle maintains the gradient of salt concentration in the kidney interior
  - - - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
        
        When blood osmolarity rises above a set point
        
        Increases permeability to water in collecting ducts
    - - Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)
        
        A specialized tissue consisting of cells of and around the afferent arteriole that supply blood to the glomerulus
      - When blood pressure drops
        
        JGA release renin
        
        Renin initiates angiotensinogen
        
        yielding angiotensin II
        
        Raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles
        
        Decrease blood flow to many capillaries
        
        Stimulates adrenal glands
        
        Release aldosterone
        
        Make nephron's distant tubulesand collecting duct
        
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      - Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
        
        Opposes the RAAS
        
        Inhibits the release of renin from JGA
        
        Reduces aldosterone release from the adrenal glands
        
        Inhibits NaCl reabsorption by collecting ducts
        
        Lower blood volume and pressure
- - - - Plasma 55%
        
        A liquid matrix
        
        Solutes
        
        Ions
        
        Blood electrolytes
        
        Chloride
        
        Bicarbonate
        
        Magnesium
        
        Calcium
        
        Potassium
        
        Sodium
        
        Proteins
        
        Fibrinogen
        
        Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
        
        Albumin
        
        Water
        
        Solvent for carrying other substances
        
        Substances transported by blood
        
        Respiratory gases
        
        Hormones
        
        Waste product of metabolism
        
        Nutrient
      - Cellular Elements 45%
        
        Platelets
        
        Blood clotting
        
        Erythrocytes
        
        Transport of O2 and some CO2
        
        Hemoglobin
        
        The iron-containing protein that transport O2
        
        Sickle-Cell Disease
        
        An abnormal form of hemoglobin polymerizes into aggregates
        
        leading to blockage of small blood vessels
        
        Decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
        
        Leukocytes
        
        Defense
        
        Immunity
  - - - The pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
  - - - Air
        
        21% of Earth's atmosphere
        
        Less dense
      - Water
        
        4-8 mL of dissolved O2 per liter
  - - - Always moist
      - Diffusion movement of O2 and CO2
    - - Gills
        
        Outfoldings of the body surface that are suspened in the water
        
        Countercurrent exchange
        
        The exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions
      - Ventilation
        
        Movement of the respiratory medium over respiratory surface
        
        maintains partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2
      - Tracheal System
        
        Made up of air tubes that branch throughout the body
        
        Internal respiratory surface
        
        Insects
      - Lungs
        
        Localized respiratory organs
        
        Open circulatory example
        
        Spiders
        
        land snails
        
        Closed circulatory example
        
        All vertebrates
        
        Alveoli
        
        Bronchioles
        
        Bronchi
        
        Trachea
        
        Pharynx
        
        Breathing
        
        The alternating inhalation and exhalation of air
        
        Amphibian
        
        Positive pressure breathing
        
        Inflating the lungs with forced airflow
        
        Bird
        
        Air passas over the gas exchange surface in only one direction
        
        Incoming fresh air does not mix with air that has already carried out gas exchange
        
        Mammal
        
        Negative pressure breathing
        
        Pulling air into their lungs
        
        Tidal Volume
        
        The volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath
        
        Vital Capacity
        
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        Residual Volume
        
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  - - - Proteins that binds O2
      - Hemoglobin
        
        Bohr Shift
        
        Low pH decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2