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Animal form and function (Ch 44. Osmoregulation and Excretion (Excretory…

- - - - In frogs and other amphibians
  - - - In birds and mammals
  - - - In fish organisms
  - - - A region in the right atrium of the heart that sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract; the pacemaker.
    - - A region of specialized heart muscle tissue between the left and the right atria where electrical impulses are delayed for about 0.1 sec before spreading to both ventricles and causing them to contract.
  - - - Blood flows through the heart once in each complete circuit of the body.
        
        In sharks, rays, bony fishes
    - - Blood flows through the heart twice for each complete circuit of the body. flows from the right side of the heart to lungs, then to the left side of heart
        
        In amphibians, reptiles, mammals
  - - - Fluid called hemolymph bathes the tissues and organs directly, and there is no distinction between the circulating fluid and the interstial fluid.
        
        insects/arthropods has this type of sys.
    - - Blood is limited to vessels and is kept separate from the interestial fluid.
        
        annelids(earthworms) have this type of sys.
  - - - Have thick, elastic, muscular walls and do not have any valves.
      - Are thicker and more elastic because they can accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart, bulging outward as blood enters and recoiling as the heart relaxes between contraction.
    - - Have thin walls with few elastic fibers and have one-way valves.
      - If blood pressure is low in veins the blood gets back to the heart by rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in the walls of venules, and veins , and by the contracting of seletal muscles.
    - - Total cross-sectional area is greater in capillary beds than in arteries, resulting in a dramatic decrease in velocity from the arteries to the capillaries. After passing through capillaries, blood speeds up as it enters the venules and veins which have smaller total cross-sectional areas.
  - - - 120 millimeters of mercury(mmHg) at systole and 70(mmHg) at diastole, expressed as 120/70
    - - Systole # = measures pressure in arteries when heart relaxes(chambers filled with blood) between beats. Diastole # = pressure in blood vessels when heart contracts(pumps blood).
    - - measured by a sphygmomanometer , an inflatable cuff attached to a pressure gauge.
    - - yes, by gravity.
    - - (Systolic = 140 and over) and (Diastolic = 90 and over)
    - - It increases your risk of heart attack, heart failure. Sudden cardiac death, and can cause heart muscle to weaken and work less efficiently.
  - - - 120 days because stem cells replace the worn out red blood cells.
    - - 45%
    - - Leukocytes
        
        (White blood cells) fight infections. Produced in bone marrow.
      - Erythrocytes
        
        (Red blood cells) Transport of O2 and some CO2. Produced in the bone marrow.
      - Plasma(Fluid)
        
        Contains dissolved ions and proteins.
      - Platelets
        
        (pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments) serve both structural and molecular functions in blood clotting. Produced in bone marrow.
  - - - Hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits (key player: cholesterol).
    - - delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production.
    - - Scavenges excess cholesterol for return to the liver.
    - - Damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle.
    - - Death of nervous tissue in the brain due to a lack O2. usually result from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
    - - another contributor to heart attack and stroke
      - Can be controlled by dietary changes, exercise, medication. consumption of processed vegetable oils(trans fat) and smoking increases the risk of these problems.
    - - The prevalence of heart disease has increased in baboon populations in African national parks over the last two decades because of all the littering and feeding them what they are not suppose to eat.
- - - - Get rid of wastes (solutes) so osmosis won't make you swell.
    - - Prevent dehydration
    - - keep it balance
  - - - They are isoosmotic (2 solutions with the same osmolarity)
      - Internal osmolarity is the same as its environment there is no tendency to gain or loose H2O.( match their environment)
    - - Control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment .( have to have good kidneys to adjust to keep in homeostasis).
  - - - Can only be tolerated @ low concentrations, excreting main requires plenty of H2O. Common in aquatic animals.
    - - Excreted by mammals, most amphibians, sharks, and some bony fish. Product of an energy-consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver.
    - - Does not dissolve in H2O, excreted by birds, many reptiles, insects, land snails. More energetically expensive than urea, requiring considerable ATP for synthesis from ammonia.
  - - - have cortical nephrons and produce urine that is isoosmotic or hypoosmotic to body fluids. The epithelium of the cloaca, which urine and feces leave the body conserves fluid by reabsorbing water from these wastes. Excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid.
    - - Produce large volumes of very dilute water. Kidneys are packed with cortical nephrons, produce filtrate at a high rate. Salt conservation relies on the reabsorption of ions from the filtrate in the distal tubules.
    - - Digesting proteins generates large quantities of urea. Kidneys shift to producing small quantities of high concentrated urine, an adjustment that disposes of the urea load while conserving as much water as possible.
    - - Have fewer and smaller nephrons, nephrons lack a distal tubule. Filtration rates are low and very little urine is excreted because they have small or no glomeruli. Main function of kidneys is to get rid of divalent ions by secreting them into proximal tubules of the nephrons and excreting them in urine.
    - - Reptiles
        
        Dehydration
      - Freshwater fishes
        
        Hperosmotic
      - Amphibians
        
        Hypoosmotic in water and dehydration on land
      - Marine fish
        
        Seawater with divalent ion
      - Birds
        
        Dehydration
      - Vampire bat
        
        Adaptation to an unusual food source.
    - - Kidneys with juxtamedullary nephrons, nephrons of birds have loops of Henle that extend less far into the medulla than those of mammals. Birds kidneys cant concentrate urine to the high osmolarities achieved by mammalian kidneys.Birds have uric acid as the nitrogenous waste molecule.
    - - Kidneys excrete dilute urine while their skin accumulates certain salts from the H2O by active transport.On land, conserve body fluid by reabsorbing H2O across the epithelium of the urinary bladdder.
  - - - recovers useful molecules and H2O from the filtrate and returns them to the body fluid.
    - - The active transport of wastes and certain other solutes from the body fluid into the filtrate .
    - - The extraction of water and small solutes, including metabolic wastes, from the body fluid.( excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood)
    - - the processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body as urine.
  - - - A breathing system in which air is forced into the lungs.
    - - A breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs.