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CHAPITER 3 Learning and Memory (OBJECTIVE 7 :
The other products we…
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Learning is a change in behavior that experience causes. Learning can occur through simple associations between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series of cognitive activities.
Behavioral learning theories assume that learning
curs as a result of responses to external events. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) elicits the response even in the absence of the first.
This response can also extend to other, similar stimuli in a process we call stimulus generalization. This process is the basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and family branding, where a consumer' s positive associations with a product transfer to other contexts.
Operant, or instrumental, conditioning occurs as the per- son learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that result in negative outcomes . Whereas classical conditioning involves the pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when reinforcement occurs following a response to a stimulus . Reinforcement is positive if a reward follows a response. It is negative if the person avoids a negative outcome by not performing a response. Punishment occurs when an unpleasant event follows a response . Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement no longer occurs.
Cognitive learning occurs as the result of mental processes. For example, observational learning occurs when the consumer performs a behavior as a result of seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded for it.
Memory is the storage of learned information . The way we encode information when we perceive it determines how we will store it in memory. The memory systems we call sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory each play a role in retaining and processing information from the outside world.
We don 't store information in isolation; we incorporate it into a knowledge structure where our brains associate it with other related data. The location of product information in associative networks, and the level of abstraction at which it is coded, help to determine when and how we will activate this information at a later time. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval include the level of familiarity with an item , its salience (or prominence) in memory, and whether the information was presented in pictorial or written form.
Products also play a role as memory markers ; consumers use them to retrieve memories about past experiences (autobiographical memories), and we often value them because they are able to do this. This function also en- courages the use of nostalgia in marketing strategies.
We can use either recognition or recall techniques to measure memory for product information. Consumers are more likely to recognize an advertisement if it is presented to them than they are to recall one without being given any cues . However , neither recognition nor recall automatically or reliably translates into product preferences or purchases.