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Basic A&P Concepts for Animals (Nutrition Terms (nutrition: food being…
Basic A&P Concepts for Animals
Species survival
Anatomy (biological form)
Natural selection and adaptation lead to an organism's anatomy
Organism's anatomy helps it survive in its environment
Looking at anatomy gives clues to physiology
Physiology: biological function
Evolution of animal size and shape
Convergent evolution
Animals not related but in the same environment have similar features
Similar features help organism have a better chance of surviving to hopefully produce offspring
Exchange with environment
Animals need to exchange nutrients, waste products, and gases with their environment
Single-celled organisms have enough surface area for exchange w/ environment
The rate of exchange is proportional to membrane surface area involved in exchange
Animals have evolutionary adaptations to make sure that all cells must have access to resources
Interstitial fluid is what's between cells
Exchange between interstitial fluid and circulatory fluid makes cells get nutrients and get rid of waste
Organization of body plans
Cells make tissues: similar appearance w/ common function
Tissues are organized into organs (simplest animals lack tissues and organs)
Organs that work together make and organ system
Types of organ systems
Digestive
Main Components: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
Main Functions: food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
Circulatory
Main Components: heart, blood vessels, blood
Main Functions: Internal distribution of materials
Respiratory
Main Components: lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
Main Functions: gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out)
Immune and Lymphatic
Main Components: bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
Main Functions: body defense (fighting infections and virally induced cancers)
Excretory
Main Components: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Main Functions: disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
Endocrine
Main Components: pituitary. thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands
Main Functions: coordination of body activities (digestion and metabolism)
signaling molecules released into bloodstream by endocrine cells are carried to all locations in body
called hormones
only receptors can respond to certain hormones
Reproductive
Main Components: ovaries or testes and associated organs
Main Functions: gamete production; promotion of fertilization; support of developing embryo
Nervous
Main Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
Main Functions coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
neurons transmit signals along dedicated routes connecting specific locations in body
nerve impulses travel to specific target cells
Integumentary
Main Components: skin and its derivatives (hair, claws, sweat glands)
Main Functions: protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration' thermoregulation
Skeletal
Main Components: skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
Main Functions: body support, protection of internal organs, movement
Muscular
Main Components: skeletal muscles
Main Functions: locomotion and other movement
Four Main Types
Epithelial Tissue
Cover outside of body and line organs and cavities within bodies
Function as barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss
Cuboidal epithelium
dice-shaped cells specialized for secretion, makes up epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands
Simple columnar epithelium
brick-shaped cells found where secretion or active absorption is important (ex. lining of intestines secreting digestive juices and absorbing nutrients)
Simple squamous epithelium
single layer of platelike cells that exchange material by diffusion (lines blood vessels and air sacs of the lungs)
Psuedostratified epithelium
in many vertebrates, mucous membrane that lines respiratory tract is formed
Stratified squamous epithelium
multilayered and regenerates rapidly (found on surfaces subject to abrasion)
Polarity
all are polarized w/ 2 different sides
apical side faces the lumen (cavity) or outside of organ (fluid or air)
basal surface on opposite side
Connective Tissue
cells scattered through extracellular matrix
matrix usually consists of web of fibers in liquid, jelylike, or solid foundation
Matrix has cells called fibroblasts and macrophages
Fibroblasts: secrete fiber proteins
macrophages: engulf foreign particles and cell debris
3 types of fibers
Collagenous: strength and flexibility
Reticular fibers: join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
Elastic fibers: make tissues elastic
Major types of connective tissues
Loose connective tissue
Most widespread connective tissue that binds epitheliea to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
Fibrous Connective tissue
dense with collagenous fibers
found in tendons (attach muscle to bone)
found in ligaments (connect bones at joints)
Bone
mineralized connective tissue
bone forming cells (osteoblasts) deposit matrix of collagen
Bone consists of repeating units (osteons)
Blood
has liquid ECM called plasma (consists of water, salts, and dissolved proteins)
Floating in plasma
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) that carry oxygen
Leukocytes (white blood cells) that function in defense
Platelets that aid in blood clotting
Adipose tissue
specialized loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells
insulates body and stores fuel
Cartilage
made of from collagen and chondroitin secreted from chondrocytes
Muscle Tissue
responsible for most body movement
consists of filaments of proteins actin and myosin
Three types of muscle tissue in vertebrates
Skeletal
Attached to bones by tendons, is striated, and is responsible for voluntary movements
Smooth
lacks striations, found in walls of internal organs
spindle shaped and responsible for involuntary body activities
Cardiac
forms wall of heart and is striated
has branched muscle fibers that interconnect by intercalated disk which help sync heart contraction
Nervous Tissue
functions in receipt, processing, and transmission of information
contains neurons (nerve cells) which transmit nerve impulses
basic units of nervous system and receives impulses from other neurons (transmit signal via axon)
contains glial cells for support
concentration of nervous tissue forms a brain
Feedback control and internal environment
Regulating and confirming
Regulator: uses internal mechanisms to control internal change despite outside change
Conformer: allows internal condition to change with external condition
Homeostasis
"maintenance of internal balance"
ex. humans maintain body temp of 37C
mechanisms
require control system
maintains variable at set point
fluctuation in variable serves as stimulus detected by a sensor
control center generates output that triggers response to return variable to set point
negative feedback dampens stimulus to return body to normal
positive feedback amplifies stimulus to go away from normal
alterations
regulated changes in internal environment is essential
some changes are cyclic
certain cyclic changes in metabolism reflect a circadian rhythm
set of physiological changes that occur every 24 hours
sometimes altered by acclimatization
physiological adjustment to changes in external environment
Thermoregulation
maintain body temp within normal range
Endothermic vs Ectothermic
Endothermic: warmed by heat from metabolism
Ectothermic: gain heat from external sources
Variation in body temp
poikiloterm: body temp varies with its environment
homeotherm: relatively constant body temperature
balancing heat loss and gain
Integumentary system helps maintain rate of heat gain that equals rate of heat loss
Insulation reduces flow of heat from body to environment
Blubber, shivering, and goosebumps are ways of insulation
Circulatory adaptation
Vasoconstriction reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing diameter of superficial blood vessels
Vasodilation widening of superficial blood vessels to increase blood flow and heat transfer to extremities
Countercurrent exchange
warm blood from arteries warms cold blood in veins as they travel in opposite directions
Cooling by evaporative heat loss
water absorbs heat when it evaporates, so sweating cools you down
Behavioral responses
some ectotherms seek warm places, orient themselves to heat sources, and expanding body surface exposed to heat
Huddling is an example of behavioral responses
Adjusting metabolic heat production
endotherms vary heat production (thermogenesis) to match changing rates of heat loss
shivering is an example
shivering wings to warm up before takeoff for flies and insects
Endocrine signals cause mitochondria to increase metabolic activity to produce heat instead of ATP
called nonshivering thermogenesis
some mammals have brown fat that is specialized for rapid heat production
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
birds and mammals, seasonal temp changes inclused adjusting insulation
in ectotherms, adjustments are at cellular level
Some produce "anitfreeze" proteins that prevent ice formation in cells
Physiological Thermostats and Fever
sensors responsible for thermoregulation are in hypothalamus
Raising temp of hypothalamus reduces fever in rest of body
Energy, size, activity, and environment
Allocation and use
Animals use chem energy from animals they eat
ATP production and use generate heat
Quantifying use
Sum of all energy used by an animal in a certain time is metabolic rate
Minimum metabolic rate and Thermoregulation
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
min metabolic rate of nongrowing endoterm at rest, that has empty stomach
measured under temp range that requires min gen or shedding of heat
standard metabolic rate (SMR)
metabolic rate of fasting, nonstressed ectotherm at rest at certain temp
Influences
Size & rate
as body size decreases, each gram of tissue increases in energy cost
as body size increases, energy cost per gram of tissue decrease but larger fraction of body tissue is required for exchange support and movement
Activity and rate
max metabolic rates happen during peak activity
most terrestrial animal avg daily rate of energy consumption is 2-4x BMR (endotherm) or SMR (ectotherm)
energy measured in Joules, calories, or kilocalories
Energy conservation
Topor: physiological state of decreased activity
Hibernation: long term topor for winter cold and food scarcity
Estivation: summer topor for high temps and scarce water
Nutrition Terms
nutrition: food being taken in, taken apart, and taken up
herbivores: dine mainly on plants or algae
carnivores: mostly eat other animals
omnivores: regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae
Animal diet contents
Diet must satisfy 3 needs
chemical energy for cellular processes
organic building blocks for macromolecules
essential nutrients
Essential nutrients
substances that an animal requires but can't assemble from simple organic molecules
Include essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals
essential amino acids
all organisms require standard set of 20 amino acids to make complete set of proteins
pants and microorganisms produce all 20
most animals have enzymes to synthesize about half if diet has sulfur and organic nitrogen
remaining amino acids must be obtained in food
essential fatty acids
fatty acids required to synthesize phospholipids, signaling molecules, and storage fats
animals lack enzymes to form double bonds found in certain fatty acids
Vitamins
organic molecules that are required in diet in small amounts (.01-100mg per day)
13 vitamins required by humans
moderate overdose is released in urine
excess fat soluble vitamins is stored in fat
minerals
inorganic nutrients required in small amounts (less than 1mg - 2500mg per day)
ingesting too much can upset homeostatic balance and cause health problems
processed foods contain large amounts of sodium chloride
serve as substrate for enzymes, coenzymes, and cofactors
Deficiencies
malnutrition: failure to obtain adequate nutrition
lack of essential nutrients
can cause deformities, disease, and death