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Social identity (They don't like us: Consequences of belonging to…

- - - - One strategy is to avoid reminders of membership in a stigmatized group
      - People can also disidentify from a group by publicly criticizing and devaluing an in-group member's poor performance.
      - A third way of disidentifying is to consider oneself to be an exception rather tha a typical group member
    - - Whereas disidentifying takes place in the mind, dissociating involves actual escape from a disadvantaged group or concealment of group membership.
  - - - Attributing negative outcomes to others' prejudice against one's group instead of to one's personal failings can protect self-esteem afainst the negative psychological effects of failure.
        
        But it also carries important costs like:
        
        Negative feedback can sometimes be realistic, and discounting it can prevent accurate self-assessment and self-improvement.
        
        The strategy may breed a sense of hopelessness and a loss of control: If one always expects to be treated primarily as a group member, no personal action will make any difference.
        
        Members of stigmatized groups who attribute their outcomes to others' prejudice may face social penalties.
        
        Attributing other people's reactions to group membership can destroy trust in positive feedback (Are praise and promotions signs of respect an admiration for one's accomplishements, or are they due to sympathy, pity, and resigned affirmative action?
    - - Intragroup comparisons boost self-esteem by showing us that we are better off than some others.
      - Intragroup comparisons boost self-esteem by remind us of in-group members who are doing particularly well-even if we are not.
  - - - Social competition: The strategy of directly seeking to change the conditions that disadventage the in-group, for example by building group solidarity and challenging the out-group.
        
        We saw that dominant groups respond with increased levels of prejudice and discrimination against out-groups when they see those groups as threats. Thus, social competition strategies are likely to provoke a backlash from powerful groups
        
        Frequent form of backlash is punishment
        
        Groups may be undeterred by backlash when they believe:
        
        They can make a difference and improve their situation
        
        Their members strongly identify with the group
        
        When they feel the group-based emotion of anger
        
        Social competition strategies take many forms. Everywhere in society, lobbies and advocacy organizations seek social changes that will benefit particular groups
  - - - Stereotype threat: The fear of confirming others'negative stereotypes of your group
      - The difinition above can actually act as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Fear of failling the reflection of your group is much higher. .
      - Several potential interventions have been developed that can reduce or eliminate entirely the effects of stereotype threat on performance.
        
        Self-affirmation
        
        Focusing on other group identities that are stereotyped positively in that same domain
        
        Presence of a role model
        
        Stereotype-relevant tasks are framed as a challenge
    - - Feelings about group membership do have major impact on the emotional and physical well-being of members of stigmatized groups
- - - - This means that the group's typical characteristics become norms or standards for one's behavior.
        
        As a result, people tend to think and act in group-typical ways.
    - - BIRG (bask in reflected glory): A way of boosting self-esteem by identifying oneself with the accomplishments or good qualities of fellow in-group members.
    - - Group memberships lead us to experience emotions on behalf of our groups, as well as affecting our self-esteem
        
        Because the group becomes part of the self
        
        Not just a form of empathy
    - - Perceiving the differences between our groups and other groups provides feelings of being unique and special, whereas seeing the similarity among members within our group can help us feel connected and similar.
  - - - When group membership is accessible, we think mostly about the features we believe we share with the group, thereby causing us to see other in-group members as similair to ourselves (interests, activities and even personality traits).
    - - Because they share our attributes, fellow group members become part of "me and mine"and so we like them, usually much more than we like out-group members.
        
        "We" is a concept much more liked than "they"
        
        In-group members are liked not as individuals but as representative of the liked group (attraction component)
        
        The fact that we like some groups more than others even shows up in the very language people use to describe others' actions.
    - - Groups prosper when their members are willing to subordinate personal interests to the group and to help other members in times of need.
        
        What is best for the group blurs together with what is the best for the individuals.
  - - - Out-group homogeneity effect: The tendency to see the out-group as relatively more homogeneous and less diverse than the in-group
        
        Familiarity: We usually know more in-group members than out-group members, and we are therefore more aware of their diversity.
        
        The relatively constrained nature of typical interactions with out-group members.
        
        People habitually focus on the personal characteristics that make them unique and different from others.
    - - Minimal intergroup situation: A research situation in which people are categorized, on an arbitrary or trivial basis, into groups that have no history, no conflicts of interest, and no stereotypes.
    - - Social identity theory: The theory that people's motivation to derive self-esteem from their group memberships is one driving force behind in-group bias.
        
        In fact, people can increase their self-esteem by discriminating others.
    - - Perceived mild threat (for example in status) amplifies intergroup discrimination.
    - - When prejudice turns from dislike to extreme hatred, it usually reflects the perception that what "they" stand for threatens everything that "we" stand for.
        
        When people perceive such extreme threat, they usually respond in two interrelated ways.
        
        They exalt in-group symbols and values
        
        They begin to hate the out-group
        
        Moral exclusion: Viewing out-groups as subhuman and outside the domain in which the rules of morality apply.
        
        Collectivist cultures may be even more likely to discriminate against out-groups.
- - - - Circumstances remind us of our similarities with others, and this activates knowledge of group membership.
    - - The presence of even a single out-group member is enough to increase our sense of in-group membership
    - - People are more likely to think of themselves in terms of their memberships in smaller groups than in larger ones, and especially when they are solo representatives of their group in a situation.
    - - Perhaps the most powerful factor in making a group membership accessible.