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Biological Bases of Behavior (Module 14: Behavior Genetics: Predicting…
Biological Bases of Behavior
Module 9: Biological Psychology and Neurotransmission
Biology, Behavior, and Mind
Biological Psychology
- the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
Neural Communication
Neuron
- a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Dendrites
- a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Axon
- the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Myelin Sheath
- a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next
Action Potential
- a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Threshold
- the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
All-or-None Response
- a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing
Synapse
- the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters
- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether than neuron will generate a neural impulse
Endorphins
- natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Antagonists
- a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
Agonist
- a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
Reuptake
- a neurotransmitter's reabsorption of the sending neuron
Module 10: The Nervous and Endocrine System
The Nervous System
Nervous System
- the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- the brain and spinal cord
Reflex
- a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
Somatic Nervous System
- the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
Sympathetic
Arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parasympathetic
- calms the body, conserving its energy
Nerves
- bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Sensory (afferent) Neurons
- neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Motor (efferent) Neurons
- neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
- neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cod to the muscles and glands
The Endocrine System
Endocrine System
- the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
- chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues
Adrenal Glands
- a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Pituitary Gland
- the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Module 11: Studying the Brain, and Older Brain Structures
The Tools of Discovery: Having Our Head Examined
Lesion
- tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan
- a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain;s structure (Also called a
CAT Scan
)
Positron Emission Tomography) Scan
- a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
- a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy
fMRI
- a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure
Older Brain Structures
Brainstem
- the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Medulla
- the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus
- the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Reticular Formation
- a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
Cerebellum
- the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
Limbic System
- neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala
- two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Hypothalamus
- a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
Module 12: The Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
- the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center
Structure of the Crotex
Glial Cells (Glia)
- cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking
Frontal Lobes
- portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead;
involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Parietal Lobes
- portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear;
receives sensory input for touch and body position
Occipital Lobes
- portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head;
includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Temporal Lobes
- portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears;
includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Functions of the Cortex
Motor Cortex
- an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Somatosensory Cortex
- area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Association Areas
- areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
The Brain's Plasticity
Plasticity
- the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Neurogenesis
- the formation of new neurons
Module 13: Brain Hemisphere Organization and the Biology of Consciousness
Our Divided Brain
Corpus Callosum
- the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Split Brains
- a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (main those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
The Biology of Consciousness
Consciousness
- our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Cognitive Neuroscience
- the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Dual Processing
- the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Module 14: Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences
Genes: Our Codes for Life
Behavior Genetics
- the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Environment
- every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Chromosomes
- threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
- a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Genes
- the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Genome
- the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
Twin and Adoption Studies
Identical Twins (monozygotic twins)
- twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal Twins (dizygotic twins)
- twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
The New Frontier: Molecular Genetics
Molecular Genetics
- the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
Heritability
Heritability
- the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
Gene Environment Interaction
Interaction
- the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
Epigenetics
- the study of the environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Module 15: Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Human Nature
Evolutionary Psychology
- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Natural Selection
- the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Mutation
- a random error in gene replications that leads to a change