The Teaching of Grammar
Explicit/Deductive vs Implicit/Inductive Teaching
Prescriptive vs Descriptive Grammar
Implicit/Inductive Teaching: the teaching of grammar through looking at texts and inferring grammatical structures and rules.
Explicit/Deductive Teaching: the direct teaching of grammatical forms where students are expected to learn, acquire and apply the forms typically through practice.
Prescriptive Grammar: The view of grammar that prescribes rules and mandates what is "correct" and what is "wrong".
Descriptive Grammar: The view of grammar as a description of how language is actually used by people
Advantage: Rules put in place a standard way of speaking that allows different users of the language to understand each other and learn the language in a systematic way. May be useful for new or weak learners.
Disadvantage: It may not reflect actual usage of the language and does not make room for natural evolution of language.
Disadvantage: If there is no authority on language, then an "anything goes" attitude may be adopted which may lead to miscommunication and misunderstanding.
Advantage: Shows language as how it is actually used in real life, focuses on the purpose of language to communicate meaning.
Learning Grammar from Different Perspectives
"30,000 feet": Highly Abstract - generalisations about meaning of forms, governed by rules. May not take into account the context of usage.
"10,000 feet": Text Types - meanings signalled across a limited range of examples in contexts of use
"Ground level": Specific Sentences - highly specific and context-dependent meanings signalled from moment to moment in language use
Grammar conveys 2 types of meaning: (1) Representational - reflects the way we perceive the world and (2) Interpersonal - reflects the way we use grammar to ease the task of getting done
Stronger focus on meaning rather than form, and grammar is learnt in context with more learner involvement. However, it may require a higher cognitive level on students' part.
Efficient way of teaching which is more structured and straightforward for teachers. Students may find this approach more decontextualised and boring, or maybe able to do practice questions but not actually apply the rules.
A response to the traditional Presentation/Production/Practice approach which researchers found not to be effective. It is an implicit/inductive approach, denouncing the explicit teaching of grammatical rules and forms. There is a strong emphasis on using language for communication
It involves getting students to carry out communicative tasks (e.g. roleplay, debates, borrowing a book from a library) and through it, students are predicted to acquire language because they have used it authentically.
Limitations in Singapore: Students may be able to "get tasks done" without using Standard English (they can use Singlish). Also, the lack of rule-teaching, especially in Primary School, will leave both parents and students worried because the application of these rules at sentence-level is very much present in examinations.
Factors to consider in choosing between explicit/implicit teaching: (1) Students' ability - lower ability learners may learn more effectively with the deductive/explicit approach as they may not be able to infer the rules. (2) Grammar rule being taught - some grammar forms may work better with each approach. // A combination of both implicit/explicit can be used as well, e.g. inductive approach to get students to notice rules, then explicit teaching of those rules to reinforce.
Three Approaches to Grammar Teaching
Examples: Determiner Dominoes, traditional whiteboard teaching of grammar
Advantages: Can appreciate language better, is usually more efficient. Disadvantages: decontextualised learning of grammar which may not translate into the ability to communicate
Advantages: focuses on the communicative aspect of language and aims to help learners be able to communicate rather than to simply apply rules to tests. Focuses on a variety of forms at once, reflecting actual language use. Disadvantages: may lack focus since many forms are being attended to at once
Examples: Man on an island story, mistake/advice worksheet, any CLT-type language task
Skills Approach: Aims to bridge the critical gap between the Product and Process approach. It focuses on guiding learners to use grammar for their own communication purposes by combining the other two approaches. #
Advantages: Exploits noticing by requiring learners to notice BOTH the grammar and make sense of the language in context (meaning)
Examples: write an opening paragraph using adverbials followed by a discussion of meaning/impact of different types of adverbials
Genre Approach #
Grammar in a Unit of Work
Grammar in the Syllabus
Structural Syllabus: Focus on grammatical forms from easy structures to difficult structures. Materials organised around grammar points.
Situational Syllabus: based on the idea that language is found in different contexts. Selection based on the different situations students will encounter.
Topical Syllabus: organised by themes which author thinks are important to the lives of students (e.g. Environment, Elderly, Heritage) #
Functional Syllabus: Focus on semantic uses of language which new learners are likely to need.
Notional Syllabus: Organised around abstract concepts or categories called notions (e.g. distance, duration, quantity)
Skills-based Syllabus: Organised around language or academic skills like reading, writing, listening, speaking.
Task-based Syllabus: Organised around different types of tasks students might need to perform language (e.g. interviews, resume etc.)
Singapore Curriculum #
Grammar and Vocabulary to be integrated with the 6 Language Skills (Reading, Listening, Writing, Speaking, Representing, Viewing).
Detailed list of grammar items to be learnt by students
CLLIPS & ACCOLADE
Pre-Emptive vs Remediative
Pre-Emptive: Teachers to identity requirements of final task, list grammatical items to be taught, then decide how to teach those grammar items.
Remediative: Get students to begin preparing final task then diagnose grammatical problems, decide on the approach and teach it.
Teaching-Learning Cycle
- Building knowledge of the field
- Supported reading
- Learning about the genre
- Supported writing
- Independent use of the genre
Grammar teaching can take place at any point in this cycle, depending on whether it is pre-emptive or remediative
Assessment
EDITING - possible pedagogy to prepare a table of the errors: explaining why errors are wrong. This allows us to be more prepared when we go to class so that we can answer students' queries.
Grammar Teachers
Content Knowledge and strong grasp of grammar
Pedagogical Content Knowledge to know how to teach grammar to students in a way they can understand.
Item-by-item type of grammar tested more in Primary School
Important considerations...
Emphasis on Purpose, Audience, Context, Culture
Fluency vs Accuracy
Introducing Metalanguage
Mood/Form vs Meaning/Function
Advantages: Provides students with a structure to function in the world and to recognise conventions; considers language in the form of texts, not just sentence level
Disadvantages: More mixed genres these days, don't want to limit students' creativity
"notice for learner" and "notice by learner"
Text-level grammar, e.g.:
- Genre Structure
- Modality
- Nominalisation
- Cohesion
Assessment
Discrete-point testing: decontextualised
Integrated approach: e.g. performance-rich tasks - problem-based, tests more than one skill, real-world context #
Scoring writing at all levels:
- Genre
- Textual grammar
- Syntax and Punctuation
- Spelling
TAVI vs TALO