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sosc1960 exam 1 (memory (Recalling and forgetting (fail to recall…

- - - - ineffective encoding (lack attention), e.g next station of hanghou is?
        
        Mnemonics:記憶法 elaborative rehearsal in organizing
        information in meaningful ways
        
        Levels-of-processing theory
        
        emphasizes the degree that info is mentally analyzed
        e.g more examples enhance retention
        
        Visual imagery and dual coding
        
        better memory of word-pairs with higher potential for visual imagery
        
        Narrative methods/ method of loci
      - Retrieval failure
        
        Cue-dependent forgetting
        -> not enough cue to rekindle information
        
        State-dependent memory
        -> better retrieval
      - Storage problem
        
        decay(lose info in memory when non use) in sensory and short-term
        -> rapid forget in first 9 hours when exposure new info
        
        Interference
        (disrupts, more competing info more forgetting)
        
        Proactive interference
        
        e.g french-> spanish -> spanish test
        
        Retroactive interference
        
        e.g french -> spanish -> french test
      - solution: keyword technique, organization cues, take effective notes, practice and rehearse, Don’t believe claims about drugs that improve memory
  - - - Traumatic brain injuries
        
        Retrograde amnesia
        (lose memory before injury)
        
        Anterograde amnesia
        (lose memory after injury)
        
        source amnesia
        (u rmb the source but u dun rmb where receive it)
  - - - sensory
        Acts as a holding bin/ precise
        Iconic & echoic repetitive rehearsal
        
        short-term
        if disrupted rehearsal-> lose memory
        e,g no difficult to hold telephone number briefly
        but chunking（7＋－2） helps to rmb, this stage is first stage to store info that have meaning & make sense of elaborative rehearsal
        
        (make short-term to be meaningful fashion) -> long-term
        
        procedural(skills/habits)
        e.g ride a bike
        
        declarative(fact)
        e.g name/date
        
        episodic(personal)
        
        semantic(general)
  - - - recollections of circumstances and
        episodes from our own lives
- - - - during conditioned
        when neutral + unconditional stimulus -> unconditioned response
        
        after conditioned
        conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response
    - - Little Albert
    - - previously conditioned response decreases in
        frequency -> disappears
    - - reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response
    - - sp recovery: reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
    - - stimulus generalization
        
        similar stimulus produce same response
      - stimulus discrimination
        
        2 diff stimulus, one evoke conditioned response, but other can not
  - - - wake up early and study hard to get good grade
    - - the process of that stimulus increase the probability of preceding behavior
      - reinforcer
        
        Any stimulus that increases the probability to occur preceding behavior
        
        primary
        
        food, water, warm
        
        secondary
        
        money, power;
        are effective due to a primary reinforcer
        
        +: add to envier
        -: remove unpleasant stimulus
      - Schedule of reinforcement
        
        partial (some not all of the time, stronger)
        
        time: fixed/ variable interval
        
        fixed interval: scalloping effect
        
        behaviors longer than continuous
        
        no of response: fixed / variable ratio
        
        ratio have better response than interval
        
        Continuous(every time it occurs)
    - - decrease the probability
      - +/- punishment
        +: weaken response through unpleasant stimulus
        -: remove sth pleasant
    - - teaching a complex behavior
  - - - Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not
        demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it.
    - - without relying on direct experience
        
      - Albert Bandura experiment: Bobo the doll
      - likely to learn a behavior which rewarding than behavior which punished
        
        genetic basis
      - media aggression produces subsequent aggression：“media copycat” killings
    - - visual/graphic
        
        learning by diagram or picture/ see sth
      - auditory/verbal
        
        learning by listening
      - read/write
        
        learning in written format
      - tactile/kinesthetic
        
        learning by doing
      - relational style
        enjoys working together
        analytical style
        learn independently
- - - - researchers ：develop theory
      - Practitioners: apply theory
- - - - Weber’s law
        
        just noticeable difference is a constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus ( not a constant amount)
    - - adjustment after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli
        -> reduction/ disappearance of sensory response
    - - one of our senses is disrupted, brain
        ]rewire and adapt to the situation
  - - - Gestalt laws of organization
        how organize pieces of information into wholes
        
        
        proximity: close objects group tgt
        
        closure: objects group tgt as a whole
        
        Simplicity: organize elements to simplest form
        
        Figure and ground: divide objects to figure & ground
        
        similarity: similar items group tgt
    - - top-down
        
        background knowledge to influence perception
      - bottom up
        
        stimulus influence our perception -> data driven
      - both occurs simultaneously
    - - shape constancy
      - size constancy
    - - Binocular cues
        
        Convergence
        
        eyes converging when focus on closer objects
        
        Retinal disparity
        
        slightly different locations on the right and left retinas
      - Monocular cues
        
        distance based on the image in either eye alone
        
        Texture gradient
        
        coarser near
        
        Linear perspective
        
        parallel line faraway-> convergence
        
        Interposition
        
        objects cover other seems closer
        
        Relative size
        
        larger seems closer
        
        Height in plane
        
        lower- nearer
        
        Light and dark
        
        lighter-pattern, darker-shadow
    - - help us perceive the world accurately and efficiently
        but sometimes lead us astray, apparently inexplicable discrepancy
        
        Ponzo illusion: size judged by bg (距離）
        
        Ebbinghaus illusion: size judged by nearby objects
        
        Müller-Lyon illusion: inside far away than outside arrow
        
        Moon illusion： lower located -> larger size
        
        Color illusion
- - - - hypothesis
        
        testable prediction
        
        operational definition
        
        translation hypothesis to be specific so that can be measured
    - - Formulate an explanation
        (theory&hypothesis)
        
        Carry out research
        (operational definition + variable)
        
        Communicate the findings
        
        Descriptive research
        (What is happening?)
        
        systematically investigate someone's behavior
        
        Correlational research
        relationship between at least two sets of variables
        associated or not? can be +/-, 0/1
        =/= causation
        
        Case study
        intensive investigation
        
        Survey research:
        research in people chosen to represent a larger population
        
        Naturalistic observation:
        observes some naturally occurring behavior
        
        Archival research 檔案的,e.g data
        
        experimental research
        (What is causing this to happen?)
        
        deliberately producing a change in one variable
        then, observing the effects of that change
        
        IV(treatment) affect DV(measure)
        DV depend on IV
        
        treatment
        
        experimental group control group
        
        Random assignment
        
        experimental manipulation
        
        the change that an experimenter
        deliberately produces in a situation
        
        also may be multiple experimental groups
        which is subjected to a different procedure
        
        when doing research with ppl
        
        experimental bias
        
        experimenter/ participant expectations
        solution: double blind procedure & placebo
        
        protect mental/physical harm
        
        privacy
        
        voluntary
        
        informed consent
        
        The only time informed consent can be eliminated is in experiments in which the risks are minimal,
        as in a purely observational study in a public place
        
        without a specific hypothesis
        
        Lack of framework
        (y doing this?)
        
        Post-hoc explanation
        (are u draw conclu?)
        
        compromising ethic
        (protect parti?)
        
        Stanford Prison Experiment
        
        Replication: the repetition of research
        increase confidence in prior findings