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HP1100 (science (theory (hypothesis (variable: aspect of a testing…

- - - - study design
        
        data collection
        
        sampling methods
        
        probability sampling:researcher knows the probability that any given individual will appear in the sample
        
        simple random
        
        a group chosen from an entire population such that every member has an equal and independent chance of being selected in a single sample
        
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        stratefied random
        
        a random sample in which 2 or more sub-samples are represented according to some predetermined proportion, generally in the same proportion as they exist in the population
        
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        cluster sampling
        
        a group selected by using clusters or groupings from a larger population
        
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        systematic sampling
        
        a probability sample that is not randomly selected
        
        multistage sampling
        
        a form of cluster sampling in which clusters are further broken down by taking samples from each cluster
        
        randomised-response technique, in which it is impossible to identify whether an answer is true of a particular individual, can be used to reduce the social desirability bias
        
        non-probabilistic sampling
        
        quota sampling
        
        snowball sampling
        
        validity of research
        
        an indication of accuracy in terms of the extent to which a research conclusion corresponds with reality
        
        internal validity: extent to which a study provides evidence of a cause-effect relationship between the IV and DV
        
        testing
        
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        regression effect
        
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        maturation
        
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        selection
        
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        history
        
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        experimental mortality
        
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        ambiguous temporal precedence
        
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        instrumentation
        
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        construct validity: extent to which the results support the theory behind the research
        
        ambiguous effect of IV
        
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        good-subject tendency
        
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        loose connection between theoretical construct and method
        
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        evaluation apprehension
        
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        conduct manipulation check: aspect of an experiment designed to make certain that variables have changed in the way that was intended
        
        every experiment tests auxiliary hypotheses in addition to the main hypothesis. these auxiliary hypotheses are that particular conditions of the experiment are valid measures of the theoretical concepts the experiment is testing
        
        external validity:how well the findings of an experiment generalise to other situations or populations (across time, people, situations)
        
        ecological validity: extent to which an experimental situation mimics a real-world situation
        
        factors jeopardising
        
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        statistical conclusion validity: extent to which data are shown to be the result of cause-effect relationships rather than accident
        
        improper use of statistics in analysing the data
        
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        test insufficient people
        
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        it is not easy to decide if a certain effect is simply a laboratory effect or whether it would survive transplantation to the world outside the laboratory
        
        appropriate sampling and measurement techniques must be used, and inferential statistics must be used properly, in keeping with their underlying assumptions
        
        measurement
        
        type of errors
        
        random error/ error variance
        
        variability in the dependent variable that is not associated with the independent variable
        
        reduce the precision with which you assess the effects of the independent variable
        eg, luck, physical condition
        
        systematic error
        
        measurement error that is associated with consistent bias
        
        may not be that be that big a problem if the error is consistent throughout the study
        
        will be serious is the error is associated with the independent variable, because it can confound the experimental results
        
        reliability
        
        the property of consistency of a measurement that gives the same result on different occasions
        
        test-retest reliability
        
        the degree to which the same test score would be obtained on another occasion
        
        internal consistency reliability
        
        the degree to which the various items on a test are measures of the same thing
        
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        indicator of consistency across items in a multiple item scale
        
        parallel forms reliability
        
        temporal stability
        
        validity
        
        the property of a measurement that tests what it is supposed to test
        
        face validity
        
        idea that a test should appear superficially to test what it is supposed to test
        
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        construct validity
        
        a test that the measurements actually measure the constructs they are designed to measure, but no others
        
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        types of construct validity
        
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        content validity
        
        idea that a test should sample the range of behaviour represented by the theoretical concept being tested
        
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        research design
        
        experimental research/ true experiment
        
        manipulation
        
        in an experiment, conditions or variables assigned or presented to a participant
        
        which participants receive which treatment at which time
        
        assignment
        
        in an experiment, pairing a subject with a condition or variable according to the experimenter's plan
        
        non-experimental/ correlational research
        
        measures 2 or more variables to determine the degree of relationship between them
        
        correlation is NOT the same as causation
        
        characteristics
        
        no manipulation
        
        data collection procedure must forfeit some degree of control in return for obtaining the data
        
        qualitative research: asks questions regarding how people make meaning out of the world and understand themselves
        
        types of non-experimental research methods
        
        observational research
        
        study method in which the researcher observes and records ongoing behaviour but does not attempt to change it
        
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        archival research
        
        research conducted using archival data that the researcher had no part in collecting
        (archival data: factual information in existing records)
        
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        case study
        
        exploratory study of an existing situation as a means of creating and testing a hypothesis
        
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        narrative case study: a viewpoint expressed by telling and listening to stories that communicate meaning
        
        survey
        
        method of gathering scientific information; used to determine how people feel about a particular issue, or find out the effect of an event on behaviour; functions to dispel myths
        
        designing a questionnaire
        
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        writing survey items
        
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        administering the survey
        
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        quasi experiment
        
        naturally occurring groups
        
        hermeneutics: the principles of interpretation of a text's meaning
        
        control: any means used to rule out threats to the validity of research
        
        provides standard of comparison
        
        experimental group: subjects in an experiment who receive treatment
        
        control group: subjects in a between-subjects design experiment who are like the experimental group in every respect except that they do not receive treatment
        
        control condition: a condition in a within-subjects design experiment that does not contain the experimental manipulation
        
        reduces variability
        
        control as the ability to restrain or guide sources of variability in research -> reduces chance of confounding variables or measurement error
        
        general strategies
        
        using a laboratory setting; ability to control the important sources of variability in the research setting
        
        considering the research setting as a preparation and choose the best possible research situation to test a hypothesis
        
        instrumenting the response (means of measuring DV); careful measurement renders responses objective
        
        specific strategies
        
        within-subjects design (true experiment)
        
        research design in which each subject experiences every condition of the experiment
        
        conditions to be met
        
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        carryover effects
        
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        between-subjects design (true experiment)
        
        research design in which each subject experiences only one of the conditions in the experiment
        
        random assignment: unbiased assignment process that gives each subject an equal and independent chance of being placed in every condition
        
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        matching: control procedure to ensure that experimental and control groups are equated on one or more variables before the experiment
        
        conditions to be met
        
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        still randomly allocate the members of the pairs to conditions
        
        factorial design (true experiment)
        
        research design that involves all combinations of at least 2 values of 2 or more IV
        
        interaction: effect of one variable on the DV differs on different levels of the other variable/ when the effect of one IV depends on the level of another IV
        
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        main effect: in a factorial experiment, the effect of one IV, averaged over all levels of another IV
        
        n-way factorial, where n=number of factors/ IV
        
        if 2-way factorial, AxB; A and B are the number of levels/ conditions of each factor
        
        within-subjects/ between-subjects/ mixed design
        
        replication (repeating an experiment to see if the results will be the same) as a method of control
        
        direct replication
        
        systematic replication (repeat with different subjects/ values of stimulus/ ways of measuring theoretical concepts)
        
        placebo groups
        
        one group of people gets "fake" treatments
        one group gets the real treatment
        eliminates psychological expectations of the effect of the drug
      - variable: aspect of a testing condition that can change or take on different characteristics with different conditions
        
        independent variable
        
        the condition manipulated or selected by the experimenter to determine its effect on behaviour
        
        levels: the different values of an independent variable
        
        choosing levels of IV
        
        stimuli should cover as much range as practicable
        
        stimuli should be close enough together that overlooking any interesting relationship between the stimuli is unlikely
        
        in within-subjects design, when a participant is to experience all stimuli in a single session, at least 7 stimuli should be presented (so that they cannot identify and remember each stimulus)
        
        if the continuum is quantitative, logarithmically spacing the stimuli may be advisable as most action takes place at the lower end of the scale
        
        subject variable
        
        a difference bteween subjects that cannot be controlled but can only be selected
        
        dependent variable
        
        a measure of the subjects behaviour that reflects the independent variable's effects
        
        variable of interest
        
        a variable for which its role in the cause and effect of an observed relationship is not clear
        
        confounded variable
        
        one whose effect cannot be separated from the supposed independent variable
      - X -> Y if X, then Y
        if not X, then not Y
    - - must be falsifiable, ie capable of disproof
  - - - empirical: based on experience
      - objective: any person having normal perception and being in the same place at the same time would arrive at the same observation
      - self-correcting: constantly being corrected by new evidence
      - progressive: moving forward in truth, adding more and more information to what was previously known
      - tentative: can be made obsolete any time
      - parsimonious: using the simplest possible explanation
    - - discovery of relationships
        
        one ultimate goal of science is the development of a theory to explain the lawful relationships that exist in a particular field
      - causal inference
      - description of phenomenon