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American Higher Education & American Teacher Education (The Normal…
American Higher Education & American Teacher Education
Colonial Colleges
European Influence
English Influence
Scholastic
method: lecture is used as primary method of teaching (p.166)
Curriculum featured the trivium and the quadrivium (p. 165-166)
Scottish Influence
Instruction became more scientific, clinical, and applied. (p. 168)
Colonial College Curriculum
Focused primarily on classical Greek and Latin language and literature, theology, and peripherally on natural philosophy (science) and mathematics (p. 167)
Relation to Education
European influence on colonial colleges significantly impacted American higher education. The lecture method continues to be used in higher education, and the trivium and quadrivium curricula are still partially adhered to in general curriculum.
Personally, I have taken many courses in which the lecture method was used as the primary method for transferring knowledge, and clinical experience derived from the Scottish influence constituted the last semester of my undergraduate experience.
Early National High Education
Founding of the University of Virginia established the state-chartered, publicly funded college and university (p. 169)
State universities added natural and physical sciences to curriculum, separated from religious control and adhered to state control, and were publicly funded (p. 170)
American higher education expanded to include institutions for women's higher education, often called seminaries, African American institutions, and land-grant institutions. (p. 171-173)
Relation to Education
Natural and physical sciences are still required in modern curriculum, and although founded as a church-supported school, TTU does not adhere to religious or denominational control.
German Influence
German universities' expectations of graduate students eventually reshaped American Graduate studies. Research and publication became a major factor in graduate education. (p. 178-179)
Junior and Community Colleges
Joliet Junior College founded in 1901--originally developed to offer college-level courses that could be transferred to four-year colleges and also pre-professional and vocational programs. (p. 183-184)
In 1990, there were more than 1, 240 two-year colleges in the United States. (p. 185)
Relation to Education
I took four undergraduate courses from Roane State Community College in high school. These course credits transferred to TTU and were much less-expensive than the courses would have been at TTU.
Teacher Education in the Early National Period
Samuel Read Hall stated the need for teacher education institutions and programs. (p. 207)
Academy Programs
Some Academies provided teacher preparation programs with New York being the most prominent example. Between 1849 and 1889, New York used its academies to prepare the state's teachers. (p. 208)
Teacher Institutes
Henry Barnard pioneered the teacher's institute, a conference of in-service teachers. Now, school districts set aside days for in-service conferences. (p. 209)
Female Education
Catharine Beecher founded both the Hartford Female Seminary and the Western Female Institute. (p. 211)
By 1886, 63 percent of the teachers in the United States were women. (p. 211)
Relation to Education
I am not currently in the public education field, but thanks to the efforts of women like Catharine Beecher, most of my childhood educators were women. Additionally, half of my college professors were women--progress!!
The Normal School
Originally developed in France, the Normal School included practice teaching in a demonstration school. American variations generally followed a two-year program to educate elementary school teachers. (p. 212)
Curriculum at normal schools omitted the Latin and Greek classics. Curriculum eventually expanded to include history, geography, music, physiology, educational methods and philosophy, and classroom management. The culmination was a clinical experience of practice teaching. (p. 213)
Relation to Education
As the forerunner to contemporary teacher education programs, the normal school's emphasis on practical teaching experience preceded the idea of "residency." As mentioned above, the last semester of my undergraduate work consisted of only "student teaching."
The evolution of curriculum to include educational methods, educational philosophy, and classroom management contributed to the development of modern teacher education programs in colleges and universities.
By 1915, 119,000 students were enrolled in normal schools. Programs of instruction varied at normal schools, as did admission requirements and length of program. (p. 216)
Teacher Education Programs in Colleges and Universities
Colleges and Universities developed teacher preparation programs based on the foundations established in normal schools, educational theories developed in Europe, and new scholarship in child and adolescent studies. (p. 221)
Many normal schools were reorganized as four-year colleges. (p. 221)
Progressive Education
Colonel Francis Parker emphasized methods in which children learned from nature studies, field trips, and projects. Parker also reorganized the subjects of reading, writing, speaking, and spelling into the language arts. (p. 222-223)
Marietta Johnson encouraged a child-centered education in which teachers created developmentally friendly and engaging classroom environments. She emphasized physical exercise, nature study, music, crafts, geography, storytelling, etc.. (p. 223)
William Kilpatrick introduced the "project method." (p. 224)
Relation to Education
With emphasis on "educating the whole child," the increase in "aesthetic" education by progressive educators once again incorporated music and musical activities into school curriculum.
Progressive educators inclusion of field trips, project-based learning, physical education, and crafts has been perpetuated into contemporary education. Developmentally-friendly curriculum design is at the center of the national standards for music education in the United States.