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Then & Now (American Higher Education (Early National Period (African…

- - - - "...it ushered in a movement in which the states began to establish state-chartered, publicly funded colleges and universities" (Gutek, 2012, p. 169).
    - - "160 new college and universities were established...The religious denominations were even more active than the states in establishing colleges" (Gutek, 2012, p. 170-171).
    - - "Emma Willard (1787–1870)... Committed to improving the opportunities of women. Willard established the Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, in 1821. Her seminary offered a curriculum of liberal arts and sciences (Gutek, 2012, p. 171).
    - - "American Missionary Association (AMA) exercised a leadership role in the movement to establish secondary schools, normal schools, and colleges for black students in the South’s major population areas" (Gutek, 2012, p. 172).
      - "Fisk School was established in 1866 in Nashville, Tennessee" (Gutek, 2012, p. 172).
    - - "The Dartmouth College decision of 1819 established the precedent for the inviolability of the commercial contract and protected independent, pri- vate colleges from state efforts to establish control over them by legislative action (Gutek, 2012, p. 172).
  - - - "A faculty committee of Yale University took a strong stand to maintain the existing liberal arts and science curriculum against those who sought to amend it to include applied subjects" (Gutek, 2012, p. 174).
      - "Nevertheless, the movement for applied scientific education and support for the use of federal land grants to establish such institutions gained momentum" (Gutek, 2012, p. 174).
    - - "The Morrill Act granted each state 30,000 acres of public land for each senator and representative it had in Congress according to the apportionment of the census of 1860.20 The income derived from this land was to support at least one college in each state whose primary purpose was agricultural and mechanical instruction" (Gutek, 2012, p. 175).
      - "The Second Morrill Act, passed in 1890, provided a direct cash grant of $15,000 to be increased annually to a maximum of $25,000 for the support of land-grant colleges and universities" (Gutek, 2012, p. 175)
  - - - "Charles William Eliot (1834–1926) became president of Harvard Univer- sity in 1869 and was a transformative leader in higher education. Eliot’s forty-year tenure at Harvard provides a case study of how a major American university was transformed from an institution that emphasized a prescribed classical curriculum into one that responded to the more specialized needs of a modern technological society" (Gutek, 2012, p. 176).
    - - "The German universities, which emphasized lehrfreiheit and lernfreiheit, freedom to teach and freedom to learn, had a major influence on American higher education in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries." (Gutek, 2012, p. 178).
    - - "While some educators favored this expansion of higher education’s mission, critics con- tended that the trend to specialization was eroding the central academic purpose of colleges and universities" (Gutek, 2012, p. 179).
        
        Irving Babbitt
        
        Robert M. Hutchins
        
        Allan D. Bloom
  - - - "Congress enacted and President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (P.L. 78–346), the “GI Bill,” which took effect on June 22, 1944.30 The act contained important health-care provisions for veterans and provided loans to purchase homes or start businesses" (Gutek, 2012, p. 180)
  - - - "An early effort to establish a junior college took place in Joliet, Illinois, in 1901, when the Joliet Junior College was founded" (Gutek, 2012, p. 183).
      - "Brown saw the junior college as offering college-level
        courses that could be transferred to four-year colleges and also pre-professional and vocational programs" (Gutek, 2012, p. 183-184).
    - - "The Commission on Higher Education, appointed by President Truman, issued a report in 1947 that made a strong argument for junior colleges. The commission stated that such two-year institutions could help improve equality of educational opportunity by providing a “close to home,” less costly alternative to the four-year college" (Gutek, 2012, p. 184).
  - - - "One of the early student protest movements took place at the University of California at Berkeley, when the student Free Speech Movement (FSM) confronted the university administration in the fall of 1964" (Gutek, 2012, p. 186).
        
        "In 1965, an uneasy truce quieted the situation in Berkeley. Martin Meyerson, the university’s acting chancellor, announced provisional rules for politi- cal activity on the Berkeley campus" (Gutek, 2012, p. 186).
    - - "Student activism gained momentum throughout the late 1960s as students mobilized to oppose the war in Vietnam and to work for civil rights, especially racial desegregation and African American voting rights. The anti-war movement gained impetus in 1967 when selective service boards began to revise the standing of the 2S, the student deferment for male college students. Students who resisted the draft became part of the antiwar movement" (Gutek, 2012, p. 187).
- - - - "Samuel Read Hall (1795–1877), a teacher educator who founded the American Institute of Instruction in 1829" (Gutek, 2012, p. 207).
        
        Lectures to School-Masters on Teaching (1833)
    - - "In the first half of the nineteenth century, the academy was the most prevalent type of secondary school in the United States" (Gutek, 2012, p. 207).
    - - "Common school leaders such as Henry Barnard believed that the competencies of in-service teachers needed improvement. Barnard pioneered in developing the idea of the teachers’ institute, a periodic conference of in-service teachers" (Gutek, 2012, p. 209)
  - - - She founded the Western Female Institute in Cincinnati, Ohio. "There she developed a program especially designed to prepare young women as teachers" (Gutek, 2012, p. 211).
    - - "Beecher’s An Essay on the Education of Female Teachers laid out her plan for a national corps of women teachers" (Gutek, 2012, p. 211).
      - "She estimated that 90,000 teachers needed to be trained and sent to the West" (Gutek, 2012, p. 211).
  - - - "Governor Edward Everett signed the bill that authorized the Massachusetts Board of Education to establish normal schools at Lexington, Barre, and Bridgewater. To be admitted to these normal schools, male applicants had to be seventeen and female applicants sixteen years old. They needed to have completed a common school education, be in good health, and sign a declaration of inten- tion to teach" (Gutek, 2012, p. 213).
    - - "William C. Bagley (1874–1946) made important contributions to the development of normal school programs. In 1902, as Director of the Teacher Practice School at Montana State Normal School, Bagley designed a teacher education program" (Gutek, 2012, p. 218).
    - - "Normal schools brought about the process of professionalizing teacher education. They introduced the ideas of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Fried- rich Froebel, and Johann Herbart to American teachers" (Gutek, 2012, p. 219).
  - - - "The University of Iowa reorganized its normal school into a Department of Pedagogy in 1873. The University of Wisconsin followed in 1879, Indiana and Cornell in 1886, and in 1892 Teachers College became a part of Columbia University" (Gutek, 2012, p. 221).
      - "By 1892, thirty-one universities offered educa- tional studies and teacher preparation" (Gutek, 2012, p. 221).
  - - - "Redefining the teacher’s role, Parker emphasized that teachers should (1) construct learning activities that began with children’s interests and used their direct experience, and (2) act as facilitators who guided students in constructing their concepts of the reality explored in the environment" (Gutek, 2012, p. 222).
    - - "Johnson developed a teacher education program that emphasized: (1) how to observe children and how to recognize their stages of development, (2) a solid knowledge of child/adolescent development and psychology as well as educational philosophy, (3) informal learning strategies that related skills and subject to children’s interests and development, and (4) a commitment to social justice" (Gutek, 2012, p. 223).
    - - "Kilpatrick’s project method required teachers to be student-centered, pro- cess-oriented, and open-ended in how they organized and delivered instruction" (Gutek, 2012, p. 224).
    - - "Encouraged to focus their attention on their students as people, progressive teachers were to be aware of their students’ family, ethnic, racial, and language backgrounds, their prior experiences, and their interests. Guiding but not dominating what students learned, progressive teachers were to lead students in the new activities, new projects, and new problems that expanded and broad- ened their social and cultural relationships" (Gutek, 2012, p. 224).
  - - - "In 1965, a National Center for School and College Television was established at Indiana University as a central source of infor- mation about educational television." (Gutek, 2012, p. 225).
      - "By the late 1960s, more than ten million students were receiving instruction via television" (Gutek, 2012, p. 225).
    - - "The Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens v. Commonwealth (1971) and other judicial decisions paved the way for increased inclusiveness in education. The court ruled that Pennsylvania was obligated “to place every mentally retarded child in the state in a public pro- gram of education and training appropriate to the child’s capacity" (Gutek, 2012, p. 226).