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Organisational Behaviour (Group level) (Team Dynamics (Improve Team…
Organisational Behaviour (Group level)
Team Dynamics
Team Decision Making
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
Higher quality decisions, based on more complete information and diversified views
Wisdom of crowds
Independance
People's opinions are independant of those around them
Decentralisation
People are able to specialise and draw on local knowledge
Diversity of opinion
Everyone should have private information
Aggregation
Some mechanism exists for turning private judgements into a collective decision
Higher decision acceptance and commitment
Weaknesses
Evaluation apprehension
Belief that other members are silently judging you
Conformity to peer pressure
Suppress opinions that oppose team norms
Elevator study
Decision making process dominated by one or a few individuals
Group think
The mode of thinking that people engaged in when concurrent seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in group that it tends to override realistic appraisal in alternative courses of action
Space Shuttle Challenger
Direct Pressure
Illusion of unanimity
Self censorship
Illusion of invulnerability
Symptoms
Overestimation of the group
Illusion of invulnerability
Inherent morality of the group
unquestioned belief in the morality of the group can cause members to ignore the consequences of their actions
Close-mindedness
Collective rationalisation of warnings
rationalisation of ideas that oppose the group
Out-group stereotypes
Pressures towards uniformity
Illusion of unanimity
Silence is viewed as agreement
Direct pressure on Dissenters
Self censorship
Self appointed mind guards
Time contraints
Takes time to coordinate and organise when working in teams
Social Loafing
Tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts towards a common goal where the individuals are not accountable for their efforts
Studies on social loafing
Hardy & Latane (1986)
"shout as loud as you can"
Those who were told had five other participants shouting along with them shouted three times less
Blindfold participants with headphones on
Why?
individual is not accountable
responsibility is diffused
Effort is pooled
How to minimise
Make individual performance more visible
specialise tasks
measure individual performance
form smaller teams
Increase employee motivation
Increase job enrichment
select motivated employees
Team Effectiveness Model
Team Effectiveness
Team Effectiveness defined
Maintains team survival
Fulfils objectives assigned to the team
Fulfils satisfaction and wellbeing of team members
Team design
Team size
optimal size (popular but untested) of 5 to 9 people
large enough to accomplish task
too large
difficult to coordinate, less effective, social loafing is possible
too small
difficult to accomplish team objectives
Team composition
Team diversity
homogenous teams
perform better on collaborative tasks
better coordination
less conflict
faster team development
heterogenous teams
longer team development
more creative
more conflict
performs better on complex problems
level of interdependence and the task characteristics matter
Task characteristics
task structure
the extent to which tasks are clearly defined
task interdependance
degree of mutual dependance to each other
extent that team members share common input to their tasks, need to interact in the process of executing their work or receive outcomes that are partly determined by the performance of others
better when
share common inputs, processes and outcomes
tasks are clear and easy to implement
Team Processes
Team roles
a role is a set of behaviours people are expected to perform based on holding certain positions
either formally assigned or informally acquired based on personal preference
Team cohesiveness
degree of attraction between the team members feel towards the team and the motivation to stay as members
calculative
members believe the team will fulfill goals and needs
emotional
team is part of a person's social identity
influences on team cohesiveness
somewhat difficult entry
team success
team size
member interaction
member similarity
external challenges
high team cohesiveness
willing to share information
strong interpersonal bonds
want to remain members
resolve conflict effectively
better interpersonal relationships
team cohesion and performance
the relationship between team cohesion and performance depends on whether team norms and organisation goals are consistent
if the team norms are high performance, then team cohesion would help with productivity and vice versa
Team development
storming
team members start to communicate their feelings but still feel as individuals rather than part of the group, they resist control by group leaders and show hostility
performing
Team works in an open and trusting atmosphere where flexibility is key and hierarchy is unimportant
norming
people feel part of the team and realise they can achieve work if they accept others' viewpoints
adjourning
the team conducts an assessment at the end of the year and implements a plan for transitioning roles and recognising members' contributions
forming
team acquaints themselves and establishes ground rules, formalities are preserved and the team treats each other as strangers
Team norms
norms are behavioural guidelines
informal and often unspoken
will develop organically in teams
difficult to change once established
develop through
initial team experiences
critical events in team's history
experience and values that members bring to the team
Organisational and team environment
Physical space
Organisational environment
Communication systems
Organisational Structure
Reward systems
Organisational leadership
Team Basics
What are Teams
Interdependent- interact and influence each other
Mutually accountable for achieving common goals
Exists to fulfil a purpose
Perceive themselves as a social entity
Groups of two or more people
Team vs Group
Team is a type of group
But sometimes groups are just people assembled together
Teams have task interdependence and some groups do not
Types of Teams
cross functional teams
self-directed work teams
departmental teams
task force (project) teams
virtual teams
Improve Team Decision Making
ensure neither leader nor team member dominates
maintain optimal team size
sufficient team diversity relating to context
introduce effective team structures
nominal group technique
write down solutions (individual)
describe possible solutions to others (team activity)
Describe problem
vote on individual solutions presented (individual)
team norms should encourage critical thinking
Leadership and Power
Leadership
Basic concepts of leadership
Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute to the effectiveness of the organisation of which they are members
Leader vs Manager
Leader
Formal or informal power
Vision, change, future
Do the right thing
Manager
Formal power
Monitor operation, create order, create consistency
Do things right
Theories behind leadership
Trait perspective of leadership
focus on personal qualities and characteristics of a leader
the search for physical social and intellectual attributes that separate leaders from non leaders
good leaders are
extraverted
able to assert themselves
most important trait in predicting leadership
sociable
like being around people
conscientious
able to keep commitments they make and are disciplined
open to experiences
are creative and flexible
but there are others.... leadership, emotional intelligence, drive, self confidence, etc
Limitations of trait perspective of leadership
implies a universal approach
what is required of a leader in different regions may be different
some competencies may not be needed in all situations
indicates leadership potential and not actual leadership
earliest stages of leadership research
Behavioural perspective of leadership
people oriented leadership
concerned about employees' needs
desire to look out for employee's welfare
greater job satisfaction and attendance, but may sacrifice performance
task oriented leadership
assign specific tasks
ensure employees follow rules
good for performance but may sacrifice job satisfaction and attendance
focus on the study of specific behaviours of a leader, the belief that a leader's behaviour is the best determinant of their leadership success
Contingency perspective of leadership
the most appropriate leadership style depends on the situation
match between leader and follow personality, match between leadership style and nature of the task etc
path goal theory
it's up to the leader to provide followers with support, information and resources needed to achieve goals
effective leaders clear roadblocks and clarify work paths towards goals
Role of followers
effective followers can shape productive leadership behaviour
leader-follower relationship involves reciprocity, and mutual exchange of influence
a follower can amplify a leader's good points or shortcomings
followers have a responsibility to speak up when the leader is wrong
attitudes or behaviours of a follower
courage to take a moral stand when warranted to prevent ethical abuse
courage to participate in any transformation needed
coourage to constructively criticise leader's behaviours
the courage to resume responsibility for common purpose
the courage to support the leader
Power in organisations
Definition of power
Power is the capacity of a person, team or organisation to influence others
People have power they don't use and may not know they possess
Power requires one person's acceptance of dependance on another person
Sources of power
Formal Sources of Power
Reward Power
Through control of allocation of rewards
Coercive Power
Through application of punishment
Legitimate Power
The power a person receives as a result of their position within a formal hierarchy of the Organization
Personal sources of Power
Expert power
Through possessing knowledge or skill (consultants)
Referent power
Through identification and respect
Being liked and respected
Formal vs personal power
Which Basis of power is most effective?
Both expert and referent power are positively related to employee's satisfaction with supervision, their commitment to the organisation and performance. Reward and legitimate power are unrelated to these outcomes
Coercive power usually backfires
Personal
Influence
Social psychological research on influence
Robert Cialdini
Scarcity
If it's scarce, we want it more
Authority
More likely to comply with a request if it came from a perceived authority or expert
Reciprocity
Obligation to give if we're given something
Consistency
We want to be consistent to our past commitments, even if our initial commitment is quite small
Liking
We like people who are similar, complement us and those who co-operate with us
Consensus
If others are dong it, we are more likely to do it ourselves
Influence tactics in organisation
Pressure
Downward
Pushing someone to do something you want or else something undesirable will occur
using warnings, repeated demands and threats
Hard influence tactic
Legitimacy
Downward and lateral
Relying on someone's authority position or saying a request is according to the organisation's policy or rules
appeal is based on person's legitimate or positional power
Soft influence tactic
Inspirational appeal
Downward
Developing emotional commitment by appealing to target's emotions, values, needs, dreams and aspirations
Effective when it is enthusiastic, authentic and personal
Soft influence tactic
Exchange
Downward and lateral
rewarding target with benefits and favours in exchange upon requests
Reprocity
Soft influence tactic
Rational persuasion
Upward, downward and lateral
Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable
based on expert power
Soft influence tactic
Ingratiation
Upward and lateral
Key to successful ingratiation is that the other party doesn't realise you're doing this, else it may backfire
Most effective when it is infrequent, honest and well-intended
Seeks to get others to like you and hence comply with your requests
Opinion conformity (agreement)
Helping
Other-enhancement (flattery)
Soft influence tactic
Basic concept of influence
Influencing others
Influence is any behaviour that attempts to alter someone else's attitude or behaviour
Outcomes of influence
Compliance
Both hard and soft influence tactics
The person you're trying to influence accepts your influence attempt, but unenthusiastically
Does not change their attitude
Commitment
Soft influence tactics
The person you're trying to influence accepts your attempts at influence and makes an enthusiastic and voluntary effort to do what you asked
Response comes not because respondent has to, but they want to
Resistance
Hard Influence tactics
The person you're trying to influence avoids, resists or ignores your attempts to influence
Communication
Communication barriers
filtering
wilful distortion of information
in organisations, filtering often occurs in the vertical direction, where employees tend to only pass on information that presents a positive image of them
information overload
when the information load is greater than their information processing capacity
symptoms
people start preferring images and videos to written texts
people start preferring abbreviations and short texts to long texts
selective perception
our perception process is imperfect
influenced by factors such as
backgrounds
needs
attitudes
expectations
selective attention
interests
language
ambiguity
absence of punctuation
jargon
actual language spoken
Nonverbal communication
7% of communication is verbal, 93% is non-verbal
examples
eye contact, facial expression, gestures, physical distance etc
expresses
likes and dislikes, dominance and submissiveness
Basic Concepts
process by which information is transferred and understood between two or more people
transmitting the user's intended meaning is the basis of good communication
modes of communication
oral
written
non verbal
purpose of communication in organisations
information exchange
persuasion
emotional sharing of feelings
providing feedback
managing behaviour
directions of communication
lateral
horizontal
vertical
Cross cultural communcation
cultural context
high context cultures
cultures that rely heavily on non verbal communication and subtle situational cues in communication
asian languages: chinese, korean, Japanese
low context cultures
cultures that rely heavily on word to convey meaning in communication
western languages, esp germanic languages
need to anticipate the needs of others, more perspective taking
4 rules to enhance cross cultural communication
assuming differences until similarity is proven
emphasising description (factual) rather than interpretation (subjective)
testing your interpretations
practicing empathy: putting yourself into others' shoes
Conflict Management
Two types of conflict
task conflict
helps recognise problems, discuss solutions and understand issues better
potentially healthy and valuable
aimed at tasks and issues
relationship conflict
introduces personal biases and distorts information processing
tends to escalate
viewed as a personal attack
a certain amount of task conflict can increase productivity, before it levels out, but any form of relationship conflict is considered harmful and should be resolved or avoided
trust as a moderator
in a high trust environment, task conflicts stay as task conflicts, but in a low trust environment, task conflicts can escalate into relationship conflicts
sources of conflict
differentiation
the splitting process in differentiation makes the functional orientation and status inconsistencies apparent
ambiguous rules
communication problems
scare resources
incompatible goals
Conflict handling styles
compromising
little hope for a mutual win-win situation
to achieve temporary settlement
a quick solution is required
as a backup if problem solving is eventually unsuccessful
parties have equal power
middle ground between cooperativeness and assertiveness
accommodating
harmony is especially important
logic of your position is weak
the other party has much more power
to build social credit for later use
low in assertiveness and high in cooperativeness
collaborating
the issues are complex and too important to be compromised
to gain commitment
interests are not perfectly opposing
parties have trust/ openess
high in both assertiveness and cooperativeness
avoiding
when others can solve the conflict more effectively
when effort outweighs the benefit of resolution
when both parties need to cool down
when issue is trivial
low in both assertiveness and cooperativeness
when issue can be resolved by itself over time
competing
quick resolution is required
other party would take advantage of cooperation
you have a deep conviction about position
need to implement unpopular but necessary actions
high in assertiveness and low in cooperativeness
What is conflict
the process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
Introduction to negotiations
when and why?
when
to find a solution to a problem
to plan for the future
to get more of what you want
why
key communication tools and influence tool for interpersonal relationships
most people are ineffective negotiators
not due to a lack of intelligence or motivation, but because of lack of preparation and biases we have that we're often unaware of
effect of initial offers
people establish a target by offering an initial value (an anchor)
anchors are typically based on whatever information's available, either irrelevant or relevant
both parties adjust from that anchor, but generally, adjustment is insufficient
implication is that the first offer in negotiations has an advantage
BATNA
defines the most you'll pay or the least you'll accept
Negotiators should be willing to accept any terms superior to their BATNA and reject any terms that are worse than their BATNA
Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement, used when negotiators can't reach an agreement
Should be grounded in reality
what options are truly available
based on research not hope
provides a key source of power: the ability to walk away
Reservation price and Zone of Possible Agreements
RP
the lowest point before you'll walk away
NOT TARGET PRICE
quantification of your BATNA
ZOPA
range between buyer's RP and seller's RP
if the range is positive then ZOPA exists
if range is negative then no ZOPA
If one party has a strong BATNA and the other has a weak BATNA, the chance of negative ZOPA existing is higher
whereas, if both parties have weak BATNAs, there will likely be a positive ZOPA
In this case, the first offer will play a huge role
negotiations summary
Use your BATNA to set your RP
use target prices to set your first offer
Never accept an offer lower than your BATNA
preparation is key: research your own and the other party's BATNA
in general you should try to make the first offer