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SOCIOLOGY (ELEMENTS OF SPORTING CULTURE
(LOTR, RAN) (Action-Orientation…
SOCIOLOGY
ELEMENTS OF SPORTING CULTURE
(LOTR, RAN)
Action-Orientation aka motivation
- what causes them to persist?
-- S'pore Chinese Swimming Club persisted and still exists today, a residual from colonial times
-- reason SRC was motivated and still is, so as to encourage amateur sports participation
-ounded in 1883 with the main objective of encouraging amateur sports in Singapore (also motivation orientation) and also to cater to the rich expat community from Britain to pass their time while serving as officers and businessmen in SG. Moved to Padang in 1890 (Hedonism, self-direction, Achievement, stimulation)
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Recruitment
- Recruited based on what? Race/ status/ Gender/ Loyalty based on where you were born or studied (Tradition, power, security)
-- LLTC women were recruited since they were wives of members who were part of SCC.
-- Singapore Chinese Swimming Club began as a group of people going swimming, etc
Regulation
- rules and for the way the org ran the way it ran
- or, rules of the game
-- SRC was for the Eurasian community only until 1963.
-- Ladies Lawn Tennis Club est by S'pore Cricket Club (first time women were allowed to play)
-- latest game rules (conformity, tradition, Stimulation)
Technology/ Media
Definition:
- technical advancements to the sport eg equipment, sports science research on recovery to improve players' performance
- Broadcast of matches, video analysis for punditry and coaching/ training
Actual:
- Best facilities and equipment reserved for expats/ rich locals with access while locals made do with separate locations and worn equipment (Power, lack of benevolence)
Organisation
- Sporting bodies that regulate the sport
--11 Feb 1963, SRC opened itself up to all races in SG. Before that it was only exclusively for expats ----(Segregation of sport by race) as seen by BAS which used to be called Chinese Sports Improvement Council (conformity, security, tradition)
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TIME factor
RESIDUAL
- what remains from the past
-- SRC is a residual frm pre-colonial times
DOMINANT
- what is currently very dominant in a sporting culture
-- soccer, basketball is a dominant sport in SG
EMERGENT
- struggling to be dominant, gaining popularity
-- floorball is an emergent sport
POWER factor
- influence of diff grps/persons like political figures
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SPORT IN SINGAPORE
- Continuity
-- impt of the past
-- explains why most sports were from colonial times or sports org from pre-colonial times
- Memories/stories
-- thoughts/feelings about the sport
- Keeping up with the news
-- obj, goals & philosophies/personalities
eg vision 2030
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VALUES
What are the features of values?
- based on strong beliefs
- very applicable in any situation
- desire for end prdt of conduct
- guideline for evaluation of behaviour
- ordered acc to importance
Scwartz values
- Conformity (NW)
-- security
-- power
- Achievement (SW)
-- hedonism (S)
- Stimulation (SE)
-- Self-direction
-- Universalism
- Benevolence (NE)
-- Tradition (N)
Location
- Facilities all over Singapore
- Paid ones built govt like stadiums and CCs (Active SG) Stadiums in SG are all multi purpose due to space constraint compared to sport specific stadiums for Football/ Rugby/ Cricket in UK
- Free ones built by govt like outdoor basketball courts, futsal courts and badminton courts at heartland areas (HDB estate)
- Schools, polytechnics and tertiary institutes of education
- Exclusive clubs like SRC/ SSC (residual element)
- Sports Hub for athletes (SSI)
Organisation
- ActiveSG under sportsSG (for booking faci)
- running and maintaining public stadium complexes
- Sports SG is run by the government (influenced by government policies)
- Various sports organisations catering to the promotion of their sports (e.g. FAS for Football, BAS for Basketball)
- The only professional sports clubs are soccer clubs. Most other sports clubs are not professional due to lack of money so players play it as a hobby/ for passion
- Private sports academies which charge money to train youths, expensive and only available to high SES SGeans/ expats
Technology / Media
- Lack of Instantaneous video playback during live matches for soccer as compared to in EPL (UK)
- Lack of local sports being broadcasted in SG, demand for foreign sports is higher due to lack of support of local sport (same for olympics which are more closely followed and covered than SEA games or AFF Suzuki cup vs Euro/ World Cup)
- Level of sports science in local sports is quite high (NIE, SSI) due to prestige of research but it is not utilised much for SG athletes due to lack of funding for them (focus on international glory through research instead of through sports)
Regulation
- Sports SG runs sports facilities and also ensure code of conduct followed by patrons
- Schools (via PE and sports CCA) also teach students rules of sports and also ways to conduct themselves i.e. sportsmanship (trickle down from MOE as part of PE syllabus)
- Various sports organisations also enforce standards and refereeing to ensure rules are followed and also organise the sports(sporting rules and also codes of conduct following international standards set by international sports organisations)
- FAS, pre-req includes SG IC to be part of team
SOCIALISATION
- dual process
- passes on concepts like personal ID, position within diff social worlds, values,
Focuses on:
- social reinforcement
- motivation
- modelling
-- observation, inference, trial and error
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aka enculturation
- beliefs/values/ways of the society is comm to indiv so these indiv become culturally competent
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Action-Orientation / Motivation
- SG govt celebrates post-colonial successes and do not emphasise colonial ones so as to build national identity (power) and pride to unite Singapore (Hegemony using soft power to influence the public)
- *Because independence day was an important occasion in SG hx
- Vision 2030 (pg 4-7)
-- to dev healthy, resilient ppl and united communities (overall vision)
Recruitment
- Most players are recruited from existing clubs (in tertiary institutions)
- *As a result of exposure to the sport during PE in their formative years
- *Players follow coaches from sports CCA up till club level
- Word-of-mouth referral for external coaches (reserved for high SES)
- Subtle discrimination exists --> Chinese table tennis / badminton / basketball / volleyball are Chinese dominated sports due to coaches brought in, as well as residual element
-- language, mannerisms, culture (conformity-tradition-security)
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ALL THINGS VISION 2030! :)
developed by SSC with the aim of maintaining healthy and resilient population, forge stronger ties among communities, ensure adequate access to sports for all and to create stronger partnerships among the various stakeholders of Singapore sports.
- In Vision 2030, How to get there?
-- more sporting opportunities
-- > access to playing spaces
-- broader dev of capabilities to reinforce professionalism within the sporting community to enhance sporting exp
-- inclusive programs and dev for sport (age, ability, social status)
-- future-ready thru sport
(values/leadership qualities --> prep for NS and work)
- develop essential skills sets thru life in sport
--collaborative skills
--juggle work n life (preps them for this rigorous challenge)
-- Sport without Boundaries
- inclusivity
- cheaper
- access to playing spaces
- social mobility
-- Sport as a National Language
- Bridge comm thru sports (unity/benevolence) in competitive & non-competitive settings getting invol as volunteers
-- Organising for Success
- Getting stakeholders to be on same pg by:
-- working together towards a common goal (for a healthy, resilient society)
-- Being inclusive (no one is left out)
(MOE, Ministry of Culture, Comm and Youth, PA, SAF, NTUC, HPB)
- eg) MOE to ensure each child takes up 1 sport to be sports fluent, fit (for NS) and HPB (in terms of nutrition)
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Olympics
Olympic Motto:
- Citius Altius Fortius
- Faster Higher Stronger
Olympism espouses positive values:
- mastery/ excellence/ Individual honour (Achievement, self-direction, hedonism)
- Friendship (Benevolence)
- Sportsmanship and respect (tradition and benevolence)
- Equality (Universalism)
- Culture and education (conformity and universalism) e.g. environmental awareness
Foundations of Olympism
- Muscular Christianity from British Public schools used as a way to get young boys/ men to let out aggression and energy through exercise and also to keep themselves fit cos healthy body is healthy mind (conformity through discipline)
- Internationalism to advocate better political and economical cooperation among nations e.g. Pierre de Coubertin brought back Olympics to promote friendship, respect and peas
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Negative Values of Olympism:
- Excessive nationalism to be on top (power) e.g. medal table race during each olympic games
- Incidents of corruption (hedonism cos enjoy the success that comes with doping) e.g. USSR doping programme
- Exploitation (conformity women lose sponsors if they don't conform to expectations of gender roles) e.g. female runners are made to wear short shorts to boost viewership ratings or beach volleyball athletes made to wear skimpy attire, female athletes are marketed sexually in ads
- Over-commercialisation of Olympics as a platform to market products or political ideologies to the world due to broadcasting and media coverage e.g. Sponsors and ads plastered all over Olympic venues (power to influence public to purchase their products), Munich Massacre of 1972 (power through display of force), Black salute in 1968 (self-direction because they chose to stand up for their civil rights)
WOMEN IN SPORT
Location
- they played at Dhoby Green
-- They couldn't play at the padang and had to play on marshy grounds instead, but it was later renovated into a garden
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Organisation
- SCC since they were also wives of existing members of the SCC (SCC displaying benevolence)
- SCC supported them in their development but the Lawn Tennis Club closed when lawn tennis became popular
- Women had to wear covered up clothing and heavy, gaudy dresses with a hat in SG's tropical climate (conformity)
Technology
- Advanced technology for drug testing
- Gender testing: Initially began with physical testing but advanced to chromosome testing and currently testosterone testing (conformity to rules and universalism to ensure everyone is on equal footing)
Regulation
- Women were largely regulated by men before suffrage movement and WW1 brought about changes to give women more power and autonomy to participate in sports
- Creation of their own sports clubs and self-regulation
- Example of women fighting to go against sexist organising bodies in Tennis - battle of the sexes (self-direction cos they wanted to build their own path by forming their own womens' tennis association, power cos they wanted to be taken seriously and be seen as legitimate
- Physical testing, followed by chromosome testing and now testosterone testing to ensure no doping was done. (conformity to rules, universalism to ensure everyone is on the same starting line as much as naturally possible)
Recruitment in 1920s
- Womens' suffrage movement brought the spotlight on the unequal rights of women like being unable to vote (tradition from deep-rooted gender roles were broken)
- Changing of roles due to WW1. In UK and US, WW1 saw many men enlisting to the army to fight the war so women replaced them in industries. When the men came back, women resisted and pushed for more rights leading to the suffrage movement. (power cos they got closer to equal rights)
- Access to sport still dictated by race, affluence, profession and education (power of the rich and better-educated over the poor and illiterate)
Action Orientation
- in 1920s, Introduction of sports clubs. In SG, Eurasian women pioneered womens' organised sport via the Girls' Sports Club in 1929 (hedonism & achievement cos women can finally enjoy the competitive aspect of sport and do more than just spectate, self-direction cos they chose to do so of their own accord)
-- Tennis Club in SG introduced new women to sporting culture in SG as the women usually came from England with their husbands but had nothing to do so they needed to pass the time
- At Olympics in 1968 they had gender testing to stop female athletes who took testosterone/ illegal supplements to give them an advantage over other nation athletes due to excessive nationalism (power cos winning means bragging rights and increased political influence)
Sports and games in colonial Singapore: 1819–1867 (Aplin, 2012)
- Cricket & Fishing parties were played in SG because rugby, soccer and hockey not codified yet at the time
- Cricket not popular at first due to the climate
- Boat racing was popular with locals being allowed to take part
- The opening of the Suez Canal became a catalyst for the growth of sports in SG. The increased trading meant that more sailors / engineers/ merchants / colonial admin /military men came through who brought along with them the sports they had learnt in England public schools. As games then slowly became codified in England, the infusion of modern games in SG took place.
- Lawn tennis became popular and soon rugby and soccer (as a result of being codified)
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*Using Ingham's criteria to analyse situation / event, it implicitly highlight Schwartz model values!
Gender issues in Tennis:
- Inequality of prize money which was campaigned for by Billie Jean King through formation of the Women's Tennis Association (WTA).
-- 1973 US Open first ever tennis finals to feature equal prize money for men and women
Issues in Women's Sports:Tennis
- Even tho the pay cheque is now equal, there is still the residual effect of women being expected to wear skorts which are half skirt and half short. (Power, probably being forced to wear skorts to look more attractive by sponsors who want to sell the brand and increase tv viewership)
- WTA (2017) themselves have been accused of being sexist by asking fans to vote for best dressed female athletes, showing how there is still some sexism in the culture of the sport or is it in advertisement in general? Maybe they want to please advertisers and broadcasters who spent money to purchase the rights to broadcaster
Gender issues in football:
- Unequal remuneration,
e.g. difference in pay of England's Women's Super League and Men's Barclays Premier League, pay own travel and accommodation expenses, lack of insurance, Danish women's team controversy with Danish Football Association (DBU) for fair compensation when playing for country as they have no professional contract and need an income to survive
- huge disparity in retirement age
-- Only 1% of the women in the super league are mothers, highlighting the lack of support of clubs for those who choose to bear children, therefore a lot choose to retire early after having children
- Lack of support from football federations and FIFA for development of womens' football and also at the elite level
- Wery few elite clubs have a women's team, leading to a huge monopoly in the women's football arena where the clubs who have had women's team for much longer are more successful e.g. Lyon
-- Only recently did Manchester United start a women's team, with Juve and RM announcing intentions to do so.
Gender Issues in Basketball
- Unequal pay in men's and women's basketball. An article in the news (Healy, 2016) shared account of women basketball players having to play for 12 months of the year to earn enough cash to make a living. Consequently, they get injured in the process. Time they spend being injured is time away from play and hence salary. This is a sharp contrast to the men in the same sport who simply play 1 season and able to rest during the off-season as a result of much higher pay.
- In the same report, Basketball Australia (BA) was found out after they sent the male's olympic team to the London Olympics in business class while the women's team flew economy instead.
- Abby Bishop had to quit her pro bball team as BA wasn't supportive of her having to care for her niece. Additional costs for accommodation, flights and childcare which Bishop paid for on her own were indications that the BA were not supportive of her (Healy, 2016).
Early Independence
- Strong sporting ties with Msia
-- Residual element of the merger (1964, PESTA SUKAN & FAS team)
- NS est in 1967
- NAPFA (1982)
- SPORTS FOR ALL POLICY
Social aspect of nation building
-- facilities built in HDB estates as a result of SSC working with HDB, URA and PUB to promote sports in the community
- National Stadium built in 1973
-- in 1973, the "Learn to play" scheme introduced to learn basics of popular sports like squash, tennis, swimming**The facilities building was part of Master Plan of Sport Faci in 1976
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ELITE ATHLETES:
- preferred: achievement
- Avoided: tradition
INTERMEDIATE:
- preferred: conformity
- avoided: stimulation
