Introduction to General Botany
Cellular respiration
Photosynthesis light dependent
Tissues and primary growth
Transport process
Genetics
Population structure
Cellular Respiration
Metabolic reaction to convert biochemical energy and produce ATP 
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Citric Acid Cycle in matrix
follow carbon cycle
electron relay
Oxidative phosporylation
- Terminal oxidation
- Inner Membrane
Glycolysis that occurs in Cytoplasm
Anaerobic stops while aerobic continues in mitochondria
Photosynthesis
light dependent reactions to produce food by chlorophyll containing plants.
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1.Thylakoid reaction:.
1.light dependent
2.Takes place in thylakoid discs
3.water oxidized into oxygen.
4.oxygen transferred to ATP and NADPH
2.Stromal reaction
- light independent
2.occurs in stroma (fluid filled area)
3.Converts Co2 into glucose
pigments 
Chlorophyll a: Major pigment with peak absorbance at 430 nm & 660 nm
Chlorophyll b: second abundant pigment with peak absorbance at 450 nm & 650 nm
Accessory:
carotenoid
example: beta carotene
broaden absorbable wavelengths
Leaf #
A.Simple leaf: Leaf without any other other smaller leaflet units. Attached to twig by stem or the petiole.
B.Compound leaf: leaf with two or more distinct blades or leaflets joined to a single stem.
1.leaf blade: usually flat part of the leaf.
2.Petoile or stalk: joins a leaf to a stem
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Palisade layer: Contains chloroplast
Xylem: carry water and minerals from roots through stem and leaf
Phloem: carry sugar and starch from leaf to roots for storage
Spongy mesophyll layer: major site of photosynthesis
Cuticle: thin waxy layer covering upper epidermis to prevent water loss
Upper epidermis: single layer of clear cell to allow light pass and prevent water loss
Air space: Exchane of carbon dioxide and oxygen
Lower epidermis: contains stomata to allow transpiration and guard cells
Types
Tap root system; dicot plant like carrot
- Conical like carrots 2.Napiform like turnip 3.Fusiform like in raddish
Fibrous root; Monocot plants like maize or wheat.
- Root tuber in carrots .2 Fasciculated in asparagus
- Stilt roots in sugarcane
- Prop roots in Babniyan trees 5. Balancing roots
Different root sections
- Meristematic section: cells undergo mitotic division and create new cells
- Zone of elongation:growth in length occurs
3.Zone of differentiation:contains mature cells like xylem, phloem and root hairs.
- xylem and phloem are vascular tissues that transport water, sugar, and other important substances in plant
- Root hairs: Extensions of epidermal cells for osmosis of water and dissolved minerals from soil to plant body.
Vascular plants without seeds: Lycophytes, Pterophytes #
Pterophytes
Community Ecology: The study of organization and functioning of communities, the organization of interaction of species within a particular habitat. #
Types of interaction
Commensalism: One benefitted and other is unaffected
Mutualism: Both benefitted
Composed of interaction between various living species in a particular place or region.
Genetics: study of heredity and variation of inherited characters #
Gene pool:
Allele frequency
Non vascular plants: Plants without vascular bundles #
Liverwort: A non flowering plant with leaflike stems .
Moss
Non flowering and spores producing
Grows from gametophyte
Consists of leaves and stems
Hornwort
consists of the division Anthocerotophyta.
Gametophyte is the body part
Found in tropical forest
Parasitism and Predation: One is benefitted and other is harmed
Characters of vascular seedless plants
Includes ferns, whisk ferns, club mosses. horsetails
Do not produce seeds so dispersed by windblown spores
Have true roots, stems, leaves
Sperm are flagellated and require water for reproduction
Lycophytes
A.Club mosses
1.Club like projections above small leaved, conifer like stems.
2.Contains sporangium that produces spores for reproduction.
Life cycle
- Gametophyte: begins with spores that germinate into prothalli and ends with the fertilization of female gametes by male sperm.
- Sporophyte: starts with the fertilized eggs that develop into spore producing plant
General introduction
B.Quill worts
General introduction
1.Spores bearing
- Grassy, spikelike leaves and mostly found in swampy, cooler parts of North America and Eurasia.
- Sporangium present in the inner leaf surface
- Occurance of ligule
Life cycle 
C.Spike moss
General introduction
1.Falls under genus selaginella
- Widly distributed all over world mostly in tropic area
- Most are forest plants while some grow on trees and some in dry areas.
4.Leaves are clustered in spikes or strobili.
Life cycle:
Competition; Both species are harmed
Include plant like ferns
Reproduce via spores production
Have specialized tissues to conduct water and nutrients.
Have sporophyte as the dominant phase
Horse tails: Only living genus in Equisetaceae.
Reproduces by spores formation
Grows in moist rich soils in all parts of world except Australia.
Some of the species produces two kinds of shoots.
Are poisonous to livestock.
Lifecycle
Psilotum (Whisk fern)
Fern like plant also known as Psilotum nudum .
Lacks roots
Has water and food conducting tissues but lacks true leaves and roots.
Has rhizomes
Has mycorrhizal association with fungi to obtain nutrients
Life cycle: 2. Phases
- Sporophytes: large asexual phase that produces spores that develop into very small colorless sexual plant known as gametophytes.
2.Eggs and sperms are produced and these union starts the second sporophyte phase
Structures in plant body:
Sori and Sporangium: Sporangium are the capsules containing spores and the clusters in which they are arranged is the sori.
Has vascular tissues like xylem and phloem for conduction of food and watyer and has stomata for photosynthesis.
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Flowers and Reproduction
Complete flowers:Complete flowers have all four floral parts. Examples: China rose, cherry blossoms, flowers on chestnuts.
Sepals
Sepals are the outermost floral appendage.
Are modified leaves that surround maturing flower parts.
Protect the flower bud as it develops.
May be colorful.
All the sepals together are referred to as the caly
Petals
Petals are located above the sepals on the receptacle.
Are leaf-like but contain pigments other than chlorophyll.
Attract pollinators.
Collectively are a corolla.
Sepals and petals collectively are a perianth.
Absent in wind-pollinated species.
Stamens
Stamens are found above the petals.
Are collectively called as the androecium.
Two parts: anther and its supporting filament.
Diploid anther cells (microsporocytes) undergo meiosis to produce four microspores.
Microspores form a resistant cell wall and become pollen.
Carpels
Carpels, collectively, are the gynoecium.
Stigma catches pollen grains.
Style elevates the stigma.
Ovary where megaspores are produced.
Within the ovary are placentae bearing small structures called ovules
Incomplete flowers: lack at least one appendage
Also called as imperfect flower. Corn is a common example.
Have only one either male or female reproductive parts.
Imperfect flowers with only pistil are called pistillate and is female.
Imperfect flowers with stamen only are called staminate and considered male flower.
Both staminate and pistillate flower can be grown on same plant or on different plant.
Asparagus, spinach, willow have staminate flower in one plant and pistillate flowers in another plant.
Flowers with either one of the reproductive part in one flower and another in another is called dioecious and with both reproductive part in same plant is monoecious plant.
Posses cross pollination
They look more attractive
Reproduction: Reproduction in plants take place through pollination.
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from male part to female part of plant for fertilization.
Psychophily, butterfly
Large, showy, pink or lavender flowers like sunflowers.
Hydrophily, water pollinated
Distribute pollen to water surface example Vallisneria's male flower.
Distribute pollens beneath the surface example seagrass
Anemophily, wind pollination examples grasses, sedges, rushes
Pollination by wind give rise to long stamens and pistils, dull colored, unscented, small or no petals.
Melittophily: pollination by bee
Showy, open , bowl shaped flowers like wild roses, sunflowers
showy, complicated, non radially symmetrical flowers like peas, foxgloves
Phalaenophily, moth
Myophily, fly
Ornithophily, bird
Chiropterophily, bat
Cantharophily, beetle
Usually large, greenish or off white in color and heavily scented like Magnolias.
Seed Plants #
Two major types
Gymnosperms: They do not produce flowers
Do not have shell around their seeds
Do not produce flowers
do not produce fruits
Pollinated by wind
Angiosperms: They produce flowers
Have flowers as reproductive organs.
Have small pollen grains to spread genetic information
Have stamens and carpels
Havesmaller female reproductive parts than non flowering plants
Endosperm production
Gymnosperms plants examples
Cycads
Typically have a stout and woody trunk
Have pinnate leaves
Have crown of large, hard and stiff evergreen leaves.
Individual plants are either all male or all female
Lifecycle 
Have dominant diploid sporophyte phase.
Have pollen grain as small, multicellular, male haploid gametophyte phase of life cycle.
Conifers
Division of vascular plant
Contains single extant called Pinopsida.
Bear cones.
Woody plants with secondary growth
Have needle shaped evergreen leaves
Have seedss attached to the scales of a woody bracted cone
Mostly grown in Northern hemisphere forming taiga or boreal forests.
Lifecycle 
They are monoecious plants with male and femlae sporophylls on same mature sporophyte.
Gnetophyta
Consists of some 70 species
Most species are branched shrubs, others are vinelike , or clambering.
Found in dry, cool regions in Eastern and western hemisphere.
life cycle 
seed plant II #
Homospory: Primitive land plant life cycle featured this with the production of same size.
Heterospory: This evolution started in plant life cycle with the production of small male spores and large female spores .
Microspores: Small land plant spores that grow into male gametophytes. They are haploid but produced from diploid microsporocyte.
Megaspores: Large spores that grow into female gametophyte. gametophyte gives rise to sperm cells.
Sporangium(diploid): Found in Pteridophytes and found sori of sporophyte where the reproductive spores(haploid) are produced. Spores will develop into gametophytes.
Microsporangium produces microsporocytes (male) to produce micro sopres.
Megasporangium: Produces megasporocytes that produce mega spores
Ovule: an integumented indehiscent megasporangium
Stages of ovule formation according to Telome concept
- Telome truss comprising of fertile and sterile telomes
- Heterangy and Heterospory
- Megasporangium surrounded by sterile telomes.
- Pre- ovule
Reproduced by spores formations
Genotype: genetic constitution of an individual organism
Phenotype: set of observable characters of an individual . Includes morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties.
Lack true roots
Occurs in moist habitat .
Genotype frequency
Sexual reproduction as a key for genetics.
1Monohybrid cross
mutation