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ANATOMY (BASIC ANATOMICAL POSITIONS (Positions (Right vs left, Superior vs…

- - - - Structure
        
        Made up of nuclear envelope, nucleolus (with chromatins) and nuclear matrix
      - Function
        
        Regulate cellular growth
        
        Control cellular division and activities (upregulate/downregulate gene expression of certain genes)
        
        DNA storage
    - - Structure
        
        Phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol molecules and protein molecules (embedded in/on the surface terminating with carbohydrates that form the glycocalyx for cellular communication/interactions) that are in fluid motion. Amphiphatic nature allows for the hydrophilic components (polar phosphate heads) to be exposed to aq. surface and hydrophobic components (hydrocarbon tails) to be concealed and for bonds to be formed. Phospholipids may also form micelles (droplets of phospholipds with non-polar residues at core and polar ones on surface) which are involved in lipid digestion and liposomes (lipid transporters with aq. centre)
      - Function
        
        Regulate entry and exit of molecules through the semi-permeability layer and the presence of intrinsic proteins that act as channels
        *hydrophobic molecules (O2, CO2, steroid hormones) diffuse freely across membrane to extracellular environment but restricted diffusion for polar ones (eg urea, glycerol)
        
        Types of transport mechanisms across membranes
        
        Vesicular-based
        
        Endocytosis (extracellular to intracellular) and ATP used. Bulk transport of polar molecules
        
        Receptor-mediated endocytosis: vesicles only formed after target molecules bind to receptors on surface
        
        Pinocytosis: vesicles form at plasma membrane and bring molecules and fluid into cell
        
        Phagocytosis: vesicles form at plasma membrane to bring solid materials into cell
        
        Exocytosis (intracellular to extracellular) and ATP used. Bulk transport of polar molecules
        
        Membrane transporters
        
        Channel proteins: water-filled pore (allows for bulk transport unlike carrier proteins)
        
        Passive (Leak) channels: follows conc gradient and pore is always open eg K, Na and Cl channel
        
        Active (Gated) channels: against conc gradient and usually closed
        
        3 more items...
        
        Carrier proteins: change in surface conformation after binding to transport solid molecules
        
        Faciliated diffusion: follows conc. gradient eg GLUT transporters (glucose)
        
        Active transport: against conc. gradient and ATP utilised eg Na-K pump
        
        Compartmentalisation: Formation and maintenance of internal environment with optimal pH and temperature for optimal cellular functions
        
        Involved in cell signalling (ligand-receptor interactions and cell-to-cell interactions) and transport (transporter proteins)
        
        Provide structural support
    - - Smooth ER
        
        Function
        
        Synthesise lipid molecules eg fatty acids and phospholipids and carbohydrates
        
        Store & release Ca+ ions for muscle contraction
        
        Detoxification eg alcohol
        
        Structure
        
        Smooth, flattened stacks of tubules with interconnected membranes and found between cytoplasm and RER
      - Rough ER
        
        Function
        
        Site of protein synthesis (in ribosomes on surface), packaging and transport (via vesicles to Golgi Body)
        
        Structure
        
        Rough surface, flattened stacks with interconnected membranes and connected to nuclear membrane
    - - Structure
        
        95% water and other dissolved solutes eg ions, minerals etc. Soluble molecules aggregate to form larger, insoluble compounds that won't affect water potential eg glycogen
      - Function
        
        Site of cellular reactions
    - - Structure
        
        May be found freely in cytosol or attached to RER and made up 2 ribosomal subunits and rRNA
      - Function
        
        Synthesise proteins for intercellular use (found in cytosol or on RER: lysosomes) or for extracellular use (RER)
    - - Structure
        
        Double membrane with inner membrane folded into cristae and surrounded with the matrix and intermembraneous space. Contains own DNA for rapid production. Cristae contains mitochondrial enzymes involved in ATP synthesis.
      - Function
        
        Generate ATP molecules from glucose oxidation
    - - Structure
        
        Series of flattened membranous sacs with convex cis- (entry) and concave trans- face (maturing)
      - Function
        
        Modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins (synthesised from ribosomes in RER). Secretory vesicles release mature proteins into extracellular medium via exocytosis, transport vesicles transport proteins to other organelles eg lysosomes and membrane vesicles that transport proteins to membrane (integral or intrinsic proteins)
    - - Structure
        
        Made up of protein filaments: microfilaments (actin proteins), intermediate filaments (neurofilaments or keratin) and microtubules (from tubulin subunits that form centrosome and flagella)
      - Function
        
        Cell scaffold (determine cell shape) and organisation of organelles
        
        Aids in cellular movement & organelle movement (in cells)
    - - Lysosomes
        
        Function
        
        Cell defense (breakdown of foreign pathogens that enter via endocytosis)
        
        Autolysis: destruction of worn-out cells
        
        Autophagy: destruction of worn-out organelles
        
        Structure
        
        Vesicles formed from Golgi body and contains digestive enzymes
      - Peroxisomes
        
        Function
        
        Breakdown of fats and other organic molecules
        
        Neutralisation of toxic compounds
      - Proteasomes
        
        Function
        
        Breakdown and recycling of damaged or abnormal intracellular proteins
        
        Structure
        
        Multi-protein subunit complex
  - - - DNA replication (see DNA topic)
    - - Prophase:
        
        Nuclear membrane starts disintegrating
        
        spindles radiate from centriole pairs as they migrate to opp poles
        
        DNA coil and condense to chromosomes
      - Anaphase:
        
        Centromeres splits and spindle fibres shorten and pull sister chromatids to both ends of cell with aid of chromosomal microtubules
      - Telophase and cytokinesis:
        
        Nuclear membrane reforms and chromosomes uncoil. Spindle fibres disintegrate.
        
        formation of cleavage
      - Metaphase:
        
        attachment of spindle fibres to sister chromatids at kinetochore and arrangement along metaplate
    - - Cell growth, protein synthesis and organelle duplication
    - - Completion of DNA and protein synthesis and centriole duplication
- - - - Developed from either of the 3 primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm
        
        Function
        
        Cellular layer that forms body surface, covers internal organs, lines vessels (endothelium), serous linings of hollow organs/cavities (mesothelium) or specialised to form secretory glands
        
        Categories
        
        Simple (single layer)
        
        Squamous (flat cells)
        
        Nucleus found centrally
        
        Lines heart, blood and lymph vessels, air sacs, bowman's capsule, inner surface of eardrum and epithelial surface or serous membranes
        
        Assist in filtration, diffusion & osmosis; secretion of serous membranes
        
        Columnar (Rectangular cells)
        
        Nucleus found at base of cells and can specialise into goblet cells or cells with microvilli (microvilli to increase SA for absorption)
        
        Lines G.I tract, ducts of glands and gallbladder
        
        Assist in secretion and absorption
        
        Simple, ciliated columnar(contains cilia)
        
        Nuclei near base of cells and lines uterus, fallopian tubes, paranasal sinuses, respiratory tract and central canal of spinal cord
        
        Movement of mucus and other materials (eg ovum) via ciliary action
        
        Stratified (multiple layers)
        
        Squamous
        
        Found in superficial layers eg skin surface (keratinised) or mouth/oesophagus/tongue/vagina (non-keratinised)
        
        Aid in protection
        
        Columnar
        
        Found below the superficial layers (basal layers) and found in ducts of sweat glands, oesophageal glands and male urethra
        
        Aids in protection (Replacement of superficial cells) and limited role in secretion and absorption
        
        Transitional (changeable)
        
        Appearance varies from squamous (contracted state) to cuboidal (relaxed state)
        
        Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureter and urethra
        
        Allows for distension/expansion
        
        Pseudostratified, ciliated columnar
        
        Nuclei of cells at different positions but cells attached to basement membrane and lines respiratory tract
        
        Secretion and movement of mucus via cilia
        
        Glandular
        
        Lines exocrine glands (skin, pancreas or saliva ducts) and the secretory products are secreted into ducts
        
        Produce mucus, sweat, sebum, saliva or digestive enzymes
    - - Developed from mesoderm
        
        Function
        
        Bind cells together, support/strengthen other body tissues or fill extracellular matrix (protein fibers eg collagen, reticular)
        
        Categories
        
        General
        
        Dense
        
        Provide strong attachment between structures
        
        Forms tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments (bone to bone) and aponeuroses (sheet-like tendons that attach muscle to muscle/bone
        
        Matrix looks shiny white with fibroblast found in rows of collagen bundles
        
        Loose
        
        Areolar
        
        Consist of fibres (collagen, elastic and reticular) and cells embedded in semi-fluid ground substance
        
        Found in subcutaneous layer deep to skin, papillary (superficial) region of skin dermis, lamina propria of mucous membranes and around blood vessels, nerves and organs
        
        Stretch, elastic and support
        
        Reticular
        
        Network of interlacing reticular fibres and fibroblasts found in stroma (framework of interwoven fibres) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow and reticular lamina of basement membrane
        
        Form stroma of organs that binds smooth muscle cells together, filters and removes worn-out cells in spleen/microbes in lymph nodes
        
        Adipose
        
        Reduce heat loss through skin, form of energy store and protective structure
        
        Found in subcutaneous layer of skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding around joints and behind eyeball
        
        Made up of adipocytes (cells designed to store triglycerides as large centrally located droplet with nucles and cytoplasm at side)
        
        Elastic
        
        Made up of freely branching elastic fibres with fibroblasts (spaces between fibres)
        
        Found in respiratory tract, vocal cords, walls of elastic arteries, suspensory ligaments of penis and ligamenta flava (spinal ligaments) between vertebrae
        
        Allow for stretching and recoiling
        
        Specialised
        
        Bones
        
        Cartilage
        
        Blood
    - - Developed from mesoderm
        
        Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and skeletal muscle
    - - Developed from ectoderm
- - - - Made up of epidermis (keratinocytes, melanocytes and Langerhan cells), dermis (connective tissue, sweat and oil glands, hair follicles, blood vessels) and hypodermis (subcutaneous fats that anchors skin to underlying tissue/organ)
    - - Protection against UV, microbes etc
      - Thermoregulation
      - Sensory reception
      - Synthesis of compounds eg Vit D
      - Storage of chemical compounds
      - Excretion of waste and absorption
      - Expression/skin coloration
        
        Determined by haemoglobin, melanin and carotene (found in epidermal and dermal fat cells)
    - - Thin
        
        Found in rest of body. Has sebaceous glands and hair follicles
      - Thick
        
        Found on palms, soles, fingers and toes. No sebaceous glands or hair follicles
    - - Pallor: decreased blood flow/anaemia
      - Flushing: increased blood flow eg exercise, fever or infection
      - Jaundice: increase blood bilirubin as result of liver disease or haemolytic disease
      - Cyanosis (blueing of skin): decreased oxygenation of blood