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ANATOMY (BASIC ANATOMICAL POSITIONS (Positions (Right vs left, Superior vs…
ANATOMY
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Cells
Components
Nucleus
Structure
Made up of nuclear envelope, nucleolus (with chromatins) and nuclear matrix
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Cell membrane
Structure
Phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol molecules and protein molecules (embedded in/on the surface terminating with carbohydrates that form the glycocalyx for cellular communication/interactions) that are in fluid motion. Amphiphatic nature allows for the hydrophilic components (polar phosphate heads) to be exposed to aq. surface and hydrophobic components (hydrocarbon tails) to be concealed and for bonds to be formed. Phospholipids may also form micelles (droplets of phospholipds with non-polar residues at core and polar ones on surface) which are involved in lipid digestion and liposomes (lipid transporters with aq. centre)
Function
Regulate entry and exit of molecules through the semi-permeability layer and the presence of intrinsic proteins that act as channels
*hydrophobic molecules (O2, CO2, steroid hormones) diffuse freely across membrane to extracellular environment but restricted diffusion for polar ones (eg urea, glycerol)
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Compartmentalisation: Formation and maintenance of internal environment with optimal pH and temperature for optimal cellular functions
Involved in cell signalling (ligand-receptor interactions and cell-to-cell interactions) and transport (transporter proteins)
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth ER
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Structure
Smooth, flattened stacks of tubules with interconnected membranes and found between cytoplasm and RER
Rough ER
Function
Site of protein synthesis (in ribosomes on surface), packaging and transport (via vesicles to Golgi Body)
Structure
Rough surface, flattened stacks with interconnected membranes and connected to nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm
Structure
95% water and other dissolved solutes eg ions, minerals etc. Soluble molecules aggregate to form larger, insoluble compounds that won't affect water potential eg glycogen
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Ribosomes
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Function
Synthesise proteins for intercellular use (found in cytosol or on RER: lysosomes) or for extracellular use (RER)
Mitochondria
Structure
Double membrane with inner membrane folded into cristae and surrounded with the matrix and intermembraneous space. Contains own DNA for rapid production. Cristae contains mitochondrial enzymes involved in ATP synthesis.
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Golgi Apparatus
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Function
Modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins (synthesised from ribosomes in RER). Secretory vesicles release mature proteins into extracellular medium via exocytosis, transport vesicles transport proteins to other organelles eg lysosomes and membrane vesicles that transport proteins to membrane (integral or intrinsic proteins)
Cytoskeleton
Structure
Made up of protein filaments: microfilaments (actin proteins), intermediate filaments (neurofilaments or keratin) and microtubules (from tubulin subunits that form centrosome and flagella)
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Cellular division
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M phase
Prophase:
- Nuclear membrane starts disintegrating
- spindles radiate from centriole pairs as they migrate to opp poles
- DNA coil and condense to chromosomes
Anaphase:
- Centromeres splits and spindle fibres shorten and pull sister chromatids to both ends of cell with aid of chromosomal microtubules
Telophase and cytokinesis:
- Nuclear membrane reforms and chromosomes uncoil. Spindle fibres disintegrate.
- formation of cleavage
Metaphase:
- attachment of spindle fibres to sister chromatids at kinetochore and arrangement along metaplate
G1 phase
Cell growth, protein synthesis and organelle duplication
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Tissues
Types
Epithelial
Developed from either of the 3 primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm
Function
Cellular layer that forms body surface, covers internal organs, lines vessels (endothelium), serous linings of hollow organs/cavities (mesothelium) or specialised to form secretory glands
Categories
Simple (single layer)
Squamous (flat cells)
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Lines heart, blood and lymph vessels, air sacs, bowman's capsule, inner surface of eardrum and epithelial surface or serous membranes
Assist in filtration, diffusion & osmosis; secretion of serous membranes
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Simple, ciliated columnar(contains cilia)
Nuclei near base of cells and lines uterus, fallopian tubes, paranasal sinuses, respiratory tract and central canal of spinal cord
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Pseudostratified, ciliated columnar
Nuclei of cells at different positions but cells attached to basement membrane and lines respiratory tract
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Glandular
Lines exocrine glands (skin, pancreas or saliva ducts) and the secretory products are secreted into ducts
Produce mucus, sweat, sebum, saliva or digestive enzymes
Connective
Developed from mesoderm
Function
Bind cells together, support/strengthen other body tissues or fill extracellular matrix (protein fibers eg collagen, reticular)
Categories
General
Dense
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Forms tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments (bone to bone) and aponeuroses (sheet-like tendons that attach muscle to muscle/bone
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Loose
Areolar
Consist of fibres (collagen, elastic and reticular) and cells embedded in semi-fluid ground substance
Found in subcutaneous layer deep to skin, papillary (superficial) region of skin dermis, lamina propria of mucous membranes and around blood vessels, nerves and organs
Stretch, elastic and support
Reticular
Network of interlacing reticular fibres and fibroblasts found in stroma (framework of interwoven fibres) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow and reticular lamina of basement membrane
Form stroma of organs that binds smooth muscle cells together, filters and removes worn-out cells in spleen/microbes in lymph nodes
Adipose
Reduce heat loss through skin, form of energy store and protective structure
Found in subcutaneous layer of skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding around joints and behind eyeball
Made up of adipocytes (cells designed to store triglycerides as large centrally located droplet with nucles and cytoplasm at side)
Elastic
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Found in respiratory tract, vocal cords, walls of elastic arteries, suspensory ligaments of penis and ligamenta flava (spinal ligaments) between vertebrae
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Muscle
Developed from mesoderm
Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and skeletal muscle
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Organs
Skin
Structure
Made up of epidermis (keratinocytes, melanocytes and Langerhan cells), dermis (connective tissue, sweat and oil glands, hair follicles, blood vessels) and hypodermis (subcutaneous fats that anchors skin to underlying tissue/organ)
Function
Protection against UV, microbes etc
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Types
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Thick
Found on palms, soles, fingers and toes. No sebaceous glands or hair follicles
Skin discoloration
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Flushing: increased blood flow eg exercise, fever or infection
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