Approaches
Learning approaches
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Biological
Origins of psychology
Wundt: The origin of psychology as a discipline is thought to have come from Wilhelm Wundt's work in Germany. He established the first psychology lab at Leipzig University and later founded the Institute for Experimental Psychology in 1879 with his colleague, and it is at this point that psychology was distinguished as a field
Introspection: Wundt and his researchers were trained in introspection which would be done in his university rooms and the researchers would then report back what they experienced and their analysis. However, Wundt found that the reports were unique and therefore unreliable and subjective
Today psychology is seen as a science that uses a variety of methods to study animals and humans. Biological and physiological origins means that psychology can now be studied empirically, but some psychologists argue that there will always be an element of subjectivity
Cognitive
Biopsychologists assume that behaviour is affected by genetics, the central nervous system, and the chemistry of the body
Neurochemistry: This is the biochemistry of the CNS. This involves learning about the transmission of chemicals such as dopamine in the brain, which is done through neurotransmitters
Each person is (usually) born with 23 sets of chromosomes - this is our genotype - and geneticists believe this is what affects our behaviour. Studies on monozygotic twins as they share 100% of their genes, so the higher the concordance rate (shared behaviour), the more likely it is that a disorder is genetic
However, concordance rates are almost never 100%, suggesting that environment must have some involvement
Evolution of behaviour: This is thought to take place in the same way that physical characteristics evolve; it starts with a random genetic mutation, and if that improves survival chances the gene is passed on, such as the aggression gene
Behaviourism
Social learning theory
The basic assumptions of this approach include that behaviour is learned from experience, only observable behaviour can be measured scientifically, it is valid to study animals as they share the same process of learning as people, and we are born as a blank slate
Classical conditioning: This is learning when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response. The neutral stimulus then becomes a conditioned stimulus and the reflex becomes a conditioned response
Pavlov's dogs: Whenever the dogs were fed (UCS), Pavlov would ring a bell (NS). This bell then became associated with food, and the dogs began to salivate (CR) whenever they heard the bell (CS) in anticipation of food
From this association, stimulus generalisation and discrimination occurs, and time/temporal contiguity is a key factor in creating the association
Operant conditioning: Learning due to the positive or negative consequences of the behaviour, such as positive or negative reinforcement, or punishment
Skinner's box contained a lever which would release a pellet down a chute when pressed (positive reinforcement), lights and loudspeakers which were used in some trials. The final addition was a metal floor that was electrified as punishment or negative reinforcement. As soon as the rat knew that pressing the lever would trigger the release of food, the rat would do so frequently
There are five types of reinforcement schedule, listed in order of quickest to extinction of behaviour: Continuous (every response is rewarded); fixed interval (rewards are given every thirty seconds); variable interval (interval times vary but average out); fixed ratio (A reward is given for a fixed amount of responses e.g. every third press); variable ratio (reward is given randomly when response occurs, making it unpredictable)
Basic assumptions of this approach include behaviour being learned from the environment, so does not consider genetics an influence, but does account for cognitive processes, and that behaviour can be learned from observing others and the reinforcement/punishment they receive
Bandura's Bobo doll: Challenges Skinner's idea that a reinforcer or punishment will automatically stop a behaviour, as he believes these inform an individual of the consequences, and the individual is then responsible for whether this affects their behaviour. The basic idea is that we learn behaviour by observing the positive and negative consequences of others' behaviour - so we learn behaviour vicariously through a role model
Used 36 female and 36 male participants and got them to observe adult males and females behaving either neutrally or aggressively towards a bobo doll, and then were placed in the room themselves and observed. Children who had observed aggressive behaviour did act more aggressively, and those who were the same gender as the role model also acted more aggressively, and boys were more aggressive than girls
Mediating processes: The thought and consideration prior to imitation
Retention: Whether the behaviour is remembered
Reproduction: We need the ability to recreate the behaviour
Attention: The behaviour must be noticed
Motivation: If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (reinforcement and punishment)
Basic assumptions of this approach include the idea that thought processes can and should be studied scientifically; well controlled lab studies can investigate what we are thinking, also that the mind works like a computer with input from our senses and output in the form of behaviour and language, also criticise behaviourists and say that stimulus and response is only appropriate if the thought processes between the two is acknowledged
Simons & Chabris' gorillas: Focused attention on a specific task (counting the number of passes) means that other things in the environment can be missed, such as a gorilla running through a video scene, or a woman with an umbrella walking through the scene. Only 54% noticed the gorilla/woman
Cognitive psychologists believe that schemas influence our experience of the world. Schema is a collection of ideas about a person or situation formed through experience which helps the individual to understand and predict the world around them
Computer models such as the multi-store model of memory come from cognitive psychology. The information processing model also comes from the cognitive approach as a way to apply the computational models to the human mind
This can be seen in Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study
Cognitive neuroscience focuses on looking for a biological basis for thought processes, specifically how the neurons explain this process. The discipline is very scientific and has emerged as technology has advanced.
The basic assumptions of this approach include the unconscious mind (the driving force behind all behaviour), instincts/drives (motivates our behaviour), and early childhood experiences (pivotal in making us who we are)
The unconscious mind is most easily compared to an iceberg; the tip of the iceberg that is visible is the conscious mind, the pre-conscious mind is just below the surface and includes things that do surface into the conscious mind, such as memories, and the unconscious mind is the rest of the iceberg that is hidden below the surface, including our drives and instincts, and traumatic memories
Our early experiences are vital in shaping our personality. There are three elements to our personality and the way they develop affects the person we become; these are the id, ego and superego. They are shaped through experience and affects how we will behave. This approach also suggests that conflict between the three is where much of our behaviour comes from
Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies we use to reduce anxiety. Anxiety weakens the Ego, which we need to mediate between the Id and Superego. Freud suggested three types; repression, denial, and displacement
The psychosexual stages: A series of stages that every individual develops through, from birth to puberty. If a conflict is experienced during development of a stage, a fixation will affect the personality. These stages are Oral, Anal, Phallic, and Latent
This approach assumes that every individual is unique, and we should be treated as such; it also assumes that we have free will (although does acknowledge restraints such as laws and social rules); people should be viewed holistically, as looking at just one aspect of a person could lead to the real cause being missed; and that ultimately scientific methods are not appropriate to study this behaviour because the approach is objective, and humans are subjective
Free will: This is a difficult concept to prove, and Humanists believe that because people feel they chose their actions, therefore the concept exists, and means individuals are responsible for their actions, having implications for the law system. Humanists also acknowledge that free will can be restricted by circumstance,, but this is not disproving of choice, it just shows restriction of choice
Self-actualisation: Humanists believe that humans have an innate drive to achieve their full potential. Both Rogers and Maslow believed that humans achieved self-actualisation, which can be described as the ultimate feeling of well-being and satisfaction
Focus: The theory of "flow" suggests that a state of "flow" is when someone is so focused and immersed in a task that nothing else matters, for example an athlete powering through an injury. This state increases performance
Maslow thought that self-actualisation could be achieved in a series of stages/fulfillment of five needs; physiological, safety, belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualisation. The final state is not permanent and if all five stages are no longer met individuals move out of the state again
Focus on the self: Carl Rogers' work suggests that the "selves" need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation. The three selves are; the self-concept (the way you see yourself), the ideal self (the self you wish to be), and the real self (who you actually are). To reach self-actualisation a person must be congruent (the selves are all the same). An important part of this is unconditional positive regard - being accepted without requirements
The influence on counselling psychology by humanists is massive; Rogers developed his client-centred therapy, which emphasised the comfort of the client. Positive psychology has emerged from this approach, and after a decline in the late seventies due to the turn towards more scientific approaches, humanistic approaches have reemerged