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Gen Bio (Evolution (Theory of Natural Selection: (Individuals in a…

- - - - Nucleus
      - Endoplasmic Reticulum - Rough and Smooth
      - Ribosomes
    - - Centrosomes Triplets 9 + d
      - Cillia and Flagella
    - - Plastids
        
        Chloroplasts - Photosynthetic pigment
        
        Chromoplasts - Color pigment
        
        Amyloplasts - Starch plastids
      - Cell wall
      - Vacuoles - water or other storage
  - - - Cell Wall
      - Cell Membrane
      - Method of Movement
        
        Flagella
        
        Cillia
        
        Fimbriae
      - Cytoplasm
      - Ribosomes
      - Nucleoid
      - Capsule
    - - Microbes consists of
        
        Bacteria
        
        Archaea
        
        Protists
        
        Fungi
        
        Viruses
        
        Viroids
        
        Prions
      - Benefits of Microbes
        
        Microbes naturally occur in our digestive tract and live there to help with digestion
        
        Bacteria and fungi function and decomposers breaking down material so it can be used again
        
        at the bottom of the microbial food pyramid is the Cyanobacteria, algae and other kinds of protistal organisms they are primary producers they use the suns energy to perform a form a photosynthesis
        
        Food processing - such as yogurt and production of bread and alcohol
        
        They can also be used to mass produce drugs
      - Archaea
        
        They are extremophiles ( they live in extreme environments)
        
        3 types
        
        Halophiles - they live in environments of high salinity
        
        Thermophiles - these live in areas of extreme heat
        
        Methanogens - these large pockets of methane
        
        They can be found in moderate environments but most are extremophiles
      - Eubacteria - True bacteria
        
        Structure
        
        Flagella - for movement
        
        Fimbriae - to attach to surfaces
        
        Sex pillus - to connect and exchange genetic material
        
        Capsule - polysaccharide layer to prevent detection and provide protection
        
        cell wall - has PEPTIDOGYLYCAN!
        
        3 shapes
        
        Rod - Bacilli
        
        spherical - Cocci
        
        Spiral - spirllium
        
        Gram stain test
        
        Gram- positive - Thick peptidoglycan layer stains purple
        
        Gram- Negative - the cell stains pink because the cell has a thin peptidoglycan layer and instead has a outer membrane called the lipopolysaccharide bilayer
        
        What it means- the gram-postitive have their own set of drugs because the drugs can pass through the thick peptidoglycan layer however the LPS layer in the Gram-negative restricts many drugs from passing through and allowing the bacteria to survive the attack
        
        Bacterial reproduction
        
        Binary Fission - asexual reproduction
        
        Quickly divides at 15-20 minutes a division
        
        Some Bacteria can form endospores which is a a tough non-reproductive outershell that protects the bacteria in times of stress
        
        There is no sexual reproduction in Prokaryotes
        
        different ways of genetic recombination
        
        Conjugation - the sex pillus connect between bacteria cells and they exchange genetic material through the bridge
        
        Transformation - Bacteria take up the DNA from dead bacteria and fuse it into their own (This is how many forms of bacteria gain antibiotic resistance
        
        Transduction - Viruses accidentally transfer the bacterial DNA to a new cell
      - Viruses
        
        2 parts
        
        Capsid - outer protein covering
        
        DNA or RNA
        
        4 Shapes
        
        Helical
        
        Enveloped - the viruses with envelopes take the membranes from the cells they infect
        
        Icosahedral - spherical made of triangles
        
        Complex (ex. Bacteriophages)
        
        They infect by attaching to receptor molecules on the cell membrane and inserting their DNA they can only infect the Receptors that they match
        
        Take advantage of cells and uses the hosts genetics and metabolism to make new viruses
        
        Types of Viruses (by genetic material)
        
        DNA Virus
        
        they can be Double stranded -dsDNA
        
        Or single stranded - ssDNA
        
        RNA Virus
        
        They can also be Double stranded - dsRNA
        
        and single stranded - ssRNA
        
        IF SINGLE STRANDED
        
        Negative strand - complementary to mRNA in translation needs the host cells RNA polymerase to make more
        
        Positive strand - this is mRNA and can be translated directly
        
        Retroviruses RNA is reverse-transcribed using reverse transcriptase and the DNA is integrated into the host
        
        Antigens - Antigens are the binding molecule to the receptor molecules
        
        Antigenic Drift - small modifications of the spikes
        
        Antigenic shift - New spike combinations are made
        
        Are they alive?
        
        They are not because they cannot produce their own progeny
        
        they need a host
      - Viroids
        
        ONLY RNA
        
        Effect Plants
        
        Smallest pathogen
        
        They function by RNA silencing - the binding of genes restricting their growth
      - Prions
        
        THEY ARE JUST PROTEINS
        
        convert proteins to the abnormal prion form
      - Drugs combat microbes by
        
        Killing or restricting growth of pathogen NOT HOST
        
        Mutations rates of bacteria affect their effectiveness
        
        the smaller the microbe the higher the mutation rate
        
        Viroids highest
        
        RNA viruses
        
        ssDNA viruses
        
        dsDNA Viruses
        
        Bacteria
  - - - http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/stages2.gif
      - 2x Mitosis
      - Taking zygotes and forming gametes
      - Phases of Meiosis
        
        Meiosis 1
        
        Metaphase 1 - Line up along metaphase plate
        
        Anaphase 1 - Homologous pairs pulled apart
        
        Telophase 1 - cells divide
        
        Prophase 1 - crossing over and chromatids form
        
        Cytokinesis 1 - Cleavage happens
        
        Meiosis 2
        
        Prophase 2 - Um Wait?
        
        Metaphase 2 - chromosomes line up
        
        Anaphase 2 - sister chromatids pulled apart
        
        Telophase 2 - cells divide again
        
        Cytokinesis 2 - cleavage happens
    - - Cell Cycle
        
        Interphase
        
        G1 - Growth
        
        S - DNA Replication
        
        G2 - Growth, prep for call division
        
        G1/S Checkpoint
        
        G2/S Checkpoint
        
        http://ricochetscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/cell_cycle2.jpg
        
        Mitosis
        
        Prophase - Chromatin condenses and duplicate
        
        Prometaphase - Nuclear envelope dissolves
        
        Metaphase - Cells line up along metaphase plate
        
        Anaphase - homologous pairs pulled by spindle fibers to opposite ends
        
        Telophase - tubules disappear and cell division begins
        
        Cytokinesis - cells divide
        
        Animal cells - Cleavage furrow forms
        
        Plant cells - Cell plate forms separating cells
        
        http://www.rememberg.com/img/misosis-phases.png
- - - - Carbon
      - Hydrogen
      - Nitrogen
      - Oxygen
      - Phosphorus
      - Sulfur
    - - Sexual
        
        Meiosis
      - Asexual
        
        Mitosis
    - - DNA
        
        Deoxyribonucleic acid
      - RNA
        
        Ribonucleic Acid
    - - Cells<Tissues<Organs<Organ Systems<Organisms<Population< Communities< Ecosystems<Biosphere
  - - - Domain>Kingdom>Phylum>Class>Order>Family>Genus>Species
      - "King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup"
      - 3 Domains
        
        Bacteria - General Prokaryotes
        
        Archea - Prokaryotes subject to extreme environments
        
        Eukaryotes
        
        4 subsets
        
        Protista
        
        Animalia
        
        Fungi
        
        Plantae
- - - - Double Strand
      - ACGT T - Thymine
      - Deoxyribose
    - - Single Stand
      - ACGU U- Uracil
      - Ribose
  - - - Forms mRNA
  - - - Uses the mRNA to receive the correct tRNA
        Uses tRNA with the specific amino acid to then
        form a polypeptide chain
      - 3 steps
        
        Initiation
        
        elongation
        
        termination
- - - - Hydrophilic
      - Hydrophobic
    - - Transport proteins
      - Enzymatic Activity
      - Signal Transduction
      - Cell-to-cell recognition
      - Intercellular joining
      - Attachment to Cytoskeleton and Extracellular matrix
    - - Simple Diffusion
        
        Passive movement of small, hydrophobic from high to low concentration
      - Facilitated Diffusion
        
        Passive movement of small and medium molecules (hydrophobic and hydrophilic) through protein channels
        
        ATP Production
      - Osmosis
        
        Passive movement of water
        
        Hypotonic- lower concentration of solutes
        
        Isotonic- equal concentration of solutes
        
        Hypertonic- Higher concentration of solutes
      - Active Transport
        
        Uses energy to move most types of molecules
      - Exocytosis
        
        Uses Plasma membrane and Vesicles to expel large or many small molecules
      - Endocytosis
        
        Uses Plasma membrane and Vesicles to consume food, large or many small molecules
- - - - Transport work
      - Mechanical work
  - - - Competitive
        
        Blocks activation spot
      - Non-competitive
        
        Changes enzyme shape
    - - Activators
        
        Activates until deactivated
      - Inhibitors
        
        Deactivates enzyme until activated
      - Cooperative
        
        Activates while present
  - - - Consumes
        
        Glucose
        
        2 ATP
        
        2 NAD+
        
        4e-
        
        4H+
      - Produces
        
        2 Pyruvate
        
        2 H2O
        
        2 ATP
        
        2 NADH
        
        2 H+
    - - Consumes
        
        Pyruvate
        
        NAD+
        
        Coenzyme A
      - Produces
        
        CO2
        
        NADH
        
        H+
        
        Acetyl Coa
    - - Consumes
        
        Acetyl Coa
        
        2 H20
        
        3 NAD+
        
        FAD
        
        GDP
      - Produces
        
        H20
        
        3 NADH
        
        3 H+
        
        FADH2
        
        ATP
        
        2 O2
    - - Consumes
        
        NADH
        
        FADH2
        
        2H
        
        1/2 O2
      - Produces
        
        NAD+
        
        FAD
        
        H2O
        
        Multiple H+
    - - 38 ATP
- - - - Fossil record - Similarities between fossils of a older layer to a newer layer
      - Biogeography - species in different places that are related evolved from an ancestor that used to be in the same region
      - Homologous Structures - variations of a structural theme present in a common ancestor
        
        Vestigial Structures - Structures remnant of the past ancestors
        
        Analogous structures- Structures with the same function evolving in species with a different common ancestor
      - Biochemical Data - All species have one common ancestor because of the similarities in genetic code
  - - - Monophyletic Group- most recent common ancestor and all of its descendants
      - Paraphyletic Group - a most recent common ancestor and some of its descendants
      - Polyphyletic Group - a group that doesn't have a common ancestor
  - - - Substitutions
      - Insertion/Deletion
  - - - Uses Occams Razor- Simplest is best
      - minimize assumptions, maximizes Homologies
      - Use Synapomorphies to group the species
      - Descent with modification
  - - - Allopatric - a new species are formed because of geographic isolation
      - Sympatric - a new species is formed without geographic isolation
      - Possible outcomes of speciation
        
        Reinforcement - they drift further apart
        
        Fusion - they join back together eventually
        
        Stability - they diverge and maintain the same phenotype
        
        Punctuated equilibrium - they diverge and stay the same phenotype over time
        
        Gradualism - they slowly modify to the traits over time
      - Adaptive Radiation - the same species adapts to fit into different niches
  - - - Before mating attempt
        
        Temporal isolation - out at different times
        
        Behavioral isolation - Different mating procedures
        
        Habitat/Geographic isolation - live in different places
      - Before Fertilization
        
        Mechanical isolation - Things dont fit together
        
        Gametic Isolation - Gametes not work
    - - Reduced hybrid viability - It gets SelectRekt
      - Reduced Hybrid fertility - Infertil
      - Hybrid Breakdown - eventually they fall out of viability
  - - - No mutation
      - No genetic drift
      - No Migration
      - Random Mating
      - No selection
    - - p^2= Homozygous dominant
      - pq= heterozygous
      - q^2=Homozygous recessive
    - - Genetic Drift - more important in small populations
        loss of genetic variation
      - Bottleneck Effect - disaster reduces the population to a smaller amount
      - Mate selection/ non random mating
      - Heterzygote advantage - Sickle cell anemia
      - Frequency-dependent selection - higher fitness more common the phenotype
- - - - F2: Heterozygous crosses with Heterozygous
        Result: 1 Homozygous Dominant 2 Heterozygous 1 Homozygous Recessive
- - - - Shoot System - above ground
        
        Stem - provides structure and height
        
        Leaves - Catch sunlight and perform photosynthesis
        
        Petiole - the structure that connects the leaf to the stem
        
        Axillary bud - meristem portion at the connection of the petiole
        
        Branch - off shoot of the stem containing leaves and a bud at the end
        
        Bud - the end of the branch containing meristem cells
        
        Flower - the place of reproduction yielding fruit that contain seeds to pass on the next generation
        
        Fruit - seed bearing fleshy objects
        
        Nodes - the points of connection of the branch to the stem
        
        Internodes - space on the stem between the branches
        
        Flower structure
        
        Perionth
        
        Petals (coralla refers to all the petals) Attract pollinating incests
        
        Sepals - (calyx collective of all the sepals) make up the outermost whorls for photosynthesis
        
        Whorl - spiral shape or concentric circle
        
        Sexual organs
        
        Stamen - anther and filament (together called the androecium) Male part
        
        Pistil/Carpel - stigma, style ovaries (called the gynoecium) female part
      - Root system - below ground
        
        Roots - collecting minerals and water from the surrounding soil
      - Male and Female sporocytes
        
        Micro = Male
        
        starts with a Diploid Microsporocyte
        
        the Microsporocyte undergoes meiosis producing 4 haploid cell microspores
        
        the micro spores replicate through mitosis and make a pollen tube cell and generative cell
        
        the generative cell undergoes mitosis resulting in a microgametophyte with a pollen tube cell and two sperm cells on the inside of the micro gametophyte
        
        Mega = Female
        
        start with a diploid cell
        
        the diploid cell undergoes meiosis producing 4 haploid cells that are called megaspores three of them disintegrate
        
        mitosis occurs 3 times resulting in a seven celled and 8 nucleoid egg sac.
        
        the egg sac has 2 nuclei in the center to fuse to make the polar nuclei in the endosperm (3n, Triploid) 3 of them are one end is the egg between two synergids and opposite these are the 3 antipodals which currently have no purpose we know of
        
        Synergids - they are used in attracting the pollen tube and testing sperm compatibility
        
        the endosperm - is 3n and used as a food reserve
      - Types of plant cells
        
        Meristem cells - plant stem cells
        
        Protoderm - what will give rise to the epidermis
        
        Procambium - will give rise to vascular tissue
        
        Ground tissue meristem makes up structural ground tissues
        
        3 types
        
        Parenchyma - primary cell Highly flexible, low rigidity
        collenchyma- unevenly thick cell wall medium flex and rigidity
        Sclerenchyma - thiccc secondary cell wall low flex, very rigid
      - Monocots V Dicots
        
        Dicots
        
        Whorls of fours or fives
        
        Tap root
        
        Vascular tissue ring
        
        Ex. Sunflowers, Strawberries, Buttercups, Maple tree
        
        Reticular venetion
        
        outer layer is epidermis
        
        Pith ground tissue surounded by Vasc bundles ( cortex)
        
        Secondary Growth - OCCURS ONLY IN DICOTS
        Its an increase in girth
        
        Secondary Xylem - Wood
        
        Secondary Phloem - bark
        
        Tree wood growth - large for water transport
        size gets smaller as the season continues and rings only form when the tree changes cells at the end of the season
        
        Vascular rays are lateral lines that travel along the wood to the bark from the center
        
        Bark
        
        Cork cambium meristem that makes cork bark?
        
        lenticels - occuring in birch trees for the passive movement of gases into the bark
        
        Monocots
        
        Whorls of 3
        
        fibrous root
        
        Scattered vasc bundles
        
        Ex. Grass lilies
        
        Parallel Venetion
        
        Vasc bundles scattered within ground tissue
        
        Primary growth - for both monocots and dicots/ where they increase in height
      - Casparian strip - separates the Vasc bundles and the cortex deciding what enter the Vasc system
        found in the endodermis
  - - - Xylem
        
        Moves in a single direction
        
        controls the movement of water and minerals
        
        Water enters the xylem and moves to the leaves
        
        Water then creates a film around cells
        
        the water film evaporates into vapor where it exits through the stoma into the atmosphere
      - Phloem
        
        Moves in both directions
        
        moves sugars
    - - Movement of water is influenced by solutes and pressure
      - the movement is due to the addition of solute potential and pressure potential
      - Water moves from High water potential to lower water potential
    - - Root Pressure
        
        The Positive pressure of the roots or pressure from the roots forcing in the upwards direction
        
        Water and other nutrients pass from the mesophyll cells or root cells through the endodermis and casparian strip
        
        The Casparian strip is a strip in the endodermis that acts as the bouncer allowing water and nutrients to flow one way through creating the positive pressure pushing up the stem
        
        Root pressure can't work alone for the movement of water, however it works in explaining water transfer in smaller plants
        
        There are three routes at which the water can travel to get to the xylem from the root hairs
        
        Apoplastic route - the water travels along the cell walls of the cells to the endodermis where it enters the cytosol of that cell and passes through the casparian strip
        
        Symplastic route - the water travels through the cytosol of the cells and passing to the other cells through the plasmodesmata
        
        Tramsmembrane route - is a mix of both of the previous routes where it travels through both cytosol and cell wall
      - Capillarity
        
        Capillarity due to Cohesion and Adhesion
        
        Adhesion - the attraction between a water molecule and anything else
        
        Cohesion - attraction between water molecules
        
        Adhesion occurs bonding the H2O to the cell walls of the xylem
        
        Cohesion occurs between the H2O molecules
      - Cohesion-tension
        
        proposed by John Joly and Henry Dixon in 1894
        
        Evaporation and Transpiration are the two processes involved
        
        Transpiration - the process of water getting sucked up from the roots and the evaporation of excess water out of the stoma
        
        This doesn't require energy
        
        Tension - adhesion and cohesion causes tension in the xylem water column
        
        the xylem cells are constricted when the plant is actively transpiring
        
        Active transportation of water happens when the stomata are open
    - - pores that open and close on the lower epidermis to regulate the intake of CO2 and Loss of Water
      - guard cells open and close due to the amount of K+ (Potassium ions) in the guard cells
    - - Sieve tube elements
        
        Components
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nuclei
        
        Companion cell - brain of the process
      - Phloem sugars move from Sources to Sinks (high to low)
      - Sources - produces sugar Ex. Leaf cell
      - Sink cell - Store sugars Ex. Storage roots
      - Developing leaves are sinks until they begin to photosynthesize
      - Three types of phloem transport
        
        Polymer Trap - sucrose moves into companion cells where they bond forming Stachy or Raffinose these larger polymer now have to go to the sieve tube element
        
        Phloem Loading - sucrose moves through a single plasmodesmata
        
        Bulk Flow - just flow of sucrose to the Sieve tube element
      - this is all possible because of the co transport of H+ ions and sucrose through a symporter
  - - - Chlorophyll B - yellow
      - Cartenoids - orange
      - Plants are green because they reflect Green light
      - Chlorophyll A -green
    - - Cuticle - outer most film layer protecting the upper and lower epidermis
      - Upper and Lower epidermis - layer preventing transpiration of water
      - Mesophyll layer
        
        Palisade Parenchyma - top layer of parenchyma rich in chloroplasts
      - Mesophyll layer
        
        Spongy Parnchyma - Lower layer of parenchyma rich in chloroplasts above the lower epidermis
      - Vascular bundle- the area where are the water and sugars diffuse for transport around the plant
        Contains Xylem and Phloem
      - Stomata - holes located at the bottom of the leaf in the lower epidermis
    - - Outer membrane
      - Inner membrane
      - Thylakoids - location of light cycle
        Stack of Thylakoids is a Granum
      - Stroma - areas connecting the thylakoids together
    - - Light reactions
        
        Reactants: H2O + light
        
        Products: O2
        
        To the calvin cycle: ATP + NADPH
        
        2 pathways
        
        Cyclic Electron Pathway
        
        Steps
        
        Electrons in PS1 are excited by light
        
        Electrons move through the ETC and make ATP
        
        Electrons return to PS1
        
        Non cyclic Electron Pathway
        
        Utilizes Photosystem 2 and 1
        
        Pigment Complex
        
        Absorbs Solar energy or light
        
        energy bounces from one pigment molecule to the next
        
        Hits the Reaction center (chlorophyll a molecules) where its absorbed
        
        the electrons are finally passed on to the electron acceptor
        
        Steps
        
        Water oxidizes and loses an electron where it then enters PS2
        
        the H+ remains in the thylakoid space to form a gradient
        
        the electrons move through the electron transport chain to PS1
        
        the H+ move through ATP synthase producing ATP
        
        light excites the electrons in PS 1 to move from low to high energy and Reduces NADP to NADPH
        
        The H+ Gradient
        
        The Cytochrome complex pumps the H+ to the thylakoid space
        
        Water is oxidated
      - Calvin cycle/ Dark Reactions
        
        Reactants: CO2
        
        To the Light Rxns: ADP+P + NADP
        
        Products: C6H12O6
        
        Steps
        
        CO2 Fixation- Three CO2 attach to three 5 Carbon RuBP and form a six carbon
        the three 6 carbon molecules split and make six 3 carbon aka 3PG
        
        CO2 Reduction - The 3PG is converted into BPG by ATP, Then the BPG is converted to G3P by using NADPH
        
        Regeneration of RuBP - 3 ATP fuse with 5 G3P remaking RuBP
        
        TWO TURNS REQUIRED FOR ONE GLUCOSE
    - - C4 - light reactions occur in the mesophyll cells and the calvin cycle occurs in the bundle- sheath cells
      - CAM - open the stomata at night to let in CO2, close them during the day to prevent water loss.
        CO2 is converted to malate or a similar organic acid
        then the organic acid is taken from the vacuoles and used the next day
      - Photorespiration - photosynthesis that occurs using Oxygen as the reactant in the calvin cycle instead of CO2
  - - - Sporophyte phase - Stage when plants produce spores by meiosis then theese replicate by mitosis to form haploid gamete-producing cells called Gametophytes
      - Gametophyte phase- the gametophyte produces a zygote called the Spotophyte
      - Spore (Plants) - these are the cells that give rise to gametophytes
    - - Cyclical travel around the phases
      - Sporophyte (2n) forms spores through meiosis
      - Spores grow through mitosis and turn into gametophytes
      - The Gametophytes produce male and female gametes through mitosis
      - The gametes fuse through syngamy and create a zygote
      - Zygote grows through mitosis and becomes a sporophyte
      - then the sequence begins anew
    - - Phycoplastic - type that occurs in green algae simpler process
      - Phragmoplastic - the type of cell division occurring in land plants
    - - Photosynthetic Pigment - Chloropyll A, B and Carotenoids
      - Carbphydrate - Starch
      - Flagella - 2 apical or subapical pair of flagella
      - Glycoproteins, Cellulose, non cellulose polysaccharides
    - - 3 classes
        
        Liverworts
        
        Mosses
        
        Hornworts
      - Mosses
      - Liverworts
        
        Short seta - short "stems"
        
        Gemmae Cups - they are a method of asexual reproduction, Cup structures that have gemmae in them which are little pieces of tissue and rain splashes them out of their cups and spreads the liverworts
      - Hornworts
        
        They are an evolutionary mosaic
        
        they have ancestral and derived characteristics
        
        Their cells contain a single chloroplast
        
        They are one of the only species with sporophytes that demostrate indeterminate growth meaning they CANT STOP WONT STOP (HAVE SOME LUCIO OHs)
        
        Hornworts are the only group of neophytes that show this type of growth
    - - Fern allies are just things that look like ferns (XD)
      - Water is needed for the sperm to travel from the Antheridum (male) to the archegonium(female)
      - Not all ferns look alike
      - Sporangium (located underneath the leaves) is the place where asexual spores are formed
      - Sori are the collected sporangium on the bottom of the ferns
      - 4 types of Fernallies
        
        Sylotum
        
        Ex. Witch ferns
        
        No leaves, no roots, no flowers
        
        Green photosynthetic stem with sportangia coming off of it
        
        Equisetum
        
        Ex. Horse tails
        
        Stems are involved in the process of photosynthesis
        
        the sporangia are made on modified branches
        
        Lycopodium
        
        Sophyllous (meaning it has leaves of the same shape and size)
        
        homosporous (meaning it produces 1 type of sporangia)
        
        Seloginella
        
        Anisophyllus (meaning it have leaves that are different shapes and sizes)
        
        Heterosporous (meaning it makes two different types of sporangium)
    - - They have a different arrangement of vascular tissue
      - Contain a Leaf gap called a - megaphyll
      - also can contain no leaf gap - Microphyll
    - - A flowering plant that has seed enclosed in the carpel/Pistil. This includes Herbaceous (not undergoing secondary growth) plants and tress
      - Seeds are in fruit and double fertilization occurs
    - - unprotected sperm by an ovary or fruit. including conifers, cycads and ginkgos
      - Gymnosperms are heterosporous (produce 2 or more different spores) but still produce archegonium -which is the female sex organ in liverworts, ferns, mosses and conifers
- - - - Decomposer
      - Parasitic
      - Mutualists
    - - Types of Hyphae
        
        Coenocytic - these lack septum and are just one cytoplasmic mass
        
        Septate Hyphae - cells are separated by septum that separate the cells
      - Specialized Hyphae
        
        Haustoria - hyphae able to pierce the tissues of the host
        
        Types of Mycorrhizae
        
        Mycorrhizae - Mutually beneficical relationship between fungi and plant
        
        Ectomycorrhizae - (OVER THE ROOT CELLS)
        
        Arbuscular Mycorrhizae - Into the root cells
      - Mycelium - the collective of all of the Hyphae
  - - - Nutrition - Heterotrophs
      - Cell structure - multicellular eukaryotes
      - RePro and develop - Most follow Haplobiontic-diploid and reproduce asexually
    - - Zygote goes through cleavage to make the eightcelled then the blastula
      - the blastula undergoes grastrulation and makes the gastrula ( literally just folds in on itself)
    - - Radial - symmetry around a center point
      - Bilateral - two-sided symmetry
    - - Dorsal top
      - Ventral (bottom)
      - right
      - left
      - Anterior head
      - Posterior tail
      - Cephalization- development of the head
    - - Ectoderm - the external surface layer
      - Endoderm - the innermost
    - - Diploblastic - end and ecto (ex. cnidarians and comb jellies)
      - Triplobastic - three germ layers (ecto, meso, endo) Ex. all Biliterians
      - Most Triploblasts have a coelom
        
        coelomate - coelom derived from the mesoderm (MESODERM COVERS THE ENDO)
        
        Pseudo (MESODERM DOESNT COVER THE ENDO)
        
        Acoelomate
    - - Protosomes
        
        Cleavage Spiral and determinate
        
        masses of mesoderm split and form the coelom
        
        Fate of the blastopore - mouth first
      - Deuterosomes
        
        Cleavage radial and indeterminate
        
        Folds of the archenteron form into the mesoderm
        
        Fate of blastopore - anus first
  - - - All animals have a common ancestor
      - Sponges are basal animals
      - Eumetazoa is a clade with true tissues
      - Most animals belong to bilateria
      - Chordates and others belong to Deuterostomia
    - - Morph tree divides Bilateria into deuterostomes and protosomes
      - DNA tree says there are three trees Deuterostomes and lophotochozoa and ecdysozoa
      - Ecdysozoans shed their exoskeletons
  - - - Porifera
      - Cnidaria
      - Molluscs
      - Lophotrochozoa
      - Ecdysozoa
      - Deuterostomia
    - - Lacking in true tissues
      - Hermaphroditic
      - sedentary
      - Water pulled through the sponge through pores
      - Choanocyte generate the current and ingest the food
    - - Sessile and Mobile forms (jellies, corals, hydras)
      - radial, Diploblasts
      - mouth and anus hybrid and a gastrovascular cavity
      - sessile in Polyp and mobile in medusa
      - Carnivoires
      - Nematocysts are the stinging threads
    - - Rotifera
        
        Pseudocoelomate
        
        have an alimentary canal
      - Lophophorates
        
        Have a lophophore
        
        Coelomates
        
        includes two phyla: Ectoprocta and Brachiopoda
      - Molluscs
        
        Snails, slugs, oysters clams, octopi and squids
        
        soft-bodied animals most have a hard shell
        
        Body plan
        
        Muscular foot
        
        Visceral mass
        
        Mantle
        
        Many have a water-filled mantle cavity and feed using a radula
        
        Most threatened phyla
      - Annelids
        
        Segmented bodies
        
        Coelomates
        
        Internal organs
        
        hermaphroditic some reproduce asexually by fragmentation
    - - cuticle is shed by ecdysis
      - all have a tough coat called cuticle
      - Divisions
        
        Nematodes
        
        Unsegmented pseudocoelomate
        
        In most aquatic habitats soil, tissues of organisms and in body fluids
        
        have an alimentary canal but dont have a circulatory system
        
        Arthropods
        
        Coelomates
        
        Body plan
        
        Segmented body
        
        Exoskeleton
        
        jointed appendages
        
        4 major lineages
        
        Chelicerates (Ex. Scorpions, ticks, Spiders)
        
        named after their appendages called chelicerae
        
        Most are Arachnids
        
        Myriapods (Ex. Centipedes)
        
        Jaw like Mandibles
        
        Millipedes - eat plants
        
        Centipedes - carnivores
        
        Hexapods (Ex. Insects)
        
        Evolution of flight
        
        Feeding on gymnosperms
        
        Expansion of angiosperms
        
        Metamorphsis
        
        Incomplete - young called nymphs are smaller adults
        
        Complete - have larval stages
        
        Crustaceans (Ex. Crabs, Lobsters)
        
        Smaller exchange gases through their cuticle
        
        Larger have gills
    - - Development characteristics
        
        Radial cleavage indeterminate
        
        Anus formation
      - Divisions
        
        Echinoderms
        
        Network of hydraulic canals branching into tube feet
        
        Males and females sexual repro
        
        endoskeleton
        
        Larvae have bilateral symmetry
        
        Divisions
        
        Asteroidea (Sea stars)
        
        Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
        
        Echinoidea (sea urchins)
        
        Crinoidea (sea lilies)
        
        Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
        
        Chordates
        
        4 characters
        
        Notochord - skeletal structural support
        
        Dorsal, nerve cord - into the nervous system
        
        Pharngeal slits or clefts - suspension- feeding structures in invertebrate chordates, Gas exchange in vertebrates (besides the ones with limbs), develops into the ear head and neck
        
        Muscular post anal tail - skeletal elements and muscles
- - - - high temp with high rainfall
      - Epiphytes (living on other organisms)
      - Lianas ( woody vines)
      - 4 levels of trees
        
        Emergent
        
        Canopy
        
        understory
        
        Ground
      - Rapid decay causes nutrient rich soil
      - Slash and burn agri
    - - Sparse trees and grass
      - Fire recycles the nutrients into the soil
    - - High temp with low rain
      - results of the Hadley cells that bring moisture to the equator and to the 60 degrees north and south while making the top circle dry and cold and the 30 degrees hot and dry
      - Rain shadow of mountains
    - - High temp average rainfall
      - Spring ephemerals
    - - Covered mostly by grass
      - Herbaceous (nonwoody/ not undergoing secondary growth ) plants
    - - Low temp and avg rain
      - Dominated by conifers
      - Short growing season and long winters
    - - Low temp low rain
      - Most inhospitable
- - - - Relative abundance, species diversity, functional diversity, clade diversity
    - - Ecosystem functions - biomass production, grazing
    - - Ecosystem functions - Photosynthesis, air and water purification
      - Natural resources - crops
      - Aesthetics - recreation, inspiration
    - - Habitat loss - leading cause (Ex. Vernal pools)
      - Invasive species - Loss of vegetation and animals, Outcompete native organisms due to a lack of predators, competitors, and diseases, Alter the evolutionary pathway - competitive exclusion hybridization , extinction
      - Change in ecosystem processes (Disturbances) Abiotic - naturally occuring recycles nutrients (Ex. Fires) Biotic - distubance by living organisms (Ex. Grazing)
      - Climate change - Altering the levels of co2 changing the c3 and c4 cycles