abdominal pain can be referred from multiple extra-abdominal sources, including the chest (e.g., angina, pneumonia, pleurisy, malignancy), musculoskeletal structures (e.g., rib fracture, abdominal cutaneous nerve entrapment), nerves (e.g., herpes zoster, radiculopathy), or pelvis (e.g., interstitial cystitis, endometriosis, ectopic pregnancy, gynaecological malignancies such as ovarian cancer, [26] adhesions, urethral syndrome, changes or dysfunction of the pelvic muscles, prostatitis, prostate cancer), and intermittent/recurrent testicular torsion