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Lesson 9 (Ecology of the Peer Group (8-6 Macrosystem Influences on the…

- - - - Exploratory play: in the first year, the child explores—touches, tastes, and manipulates. In the second year, the child also empties, fills, inserts, puts in and out, pulls, stacks, and rolls. In the third year, the child arranges, heaps, combines, transfers, sorts, and spreads. Novel manipulations are a delight to the child and can be manipulations of objects or of words.
      - Testing play: In many types of play, what children are actually doing is testing themselves. During the second year, children test their motor skills. They pull wagons, lift objects, climb, run, and jump. As children get older, they test themselves in games. They compete with others to measure their skills, both physical and intellectual. They also test their emotions, such as fear and anger.
      - Imitative play: During the first year of life, the baby imitates the parent. During the second year of life, the child can put together parts of acts already imitated or observed in new combinations. In the third year, children imitate whole roles, such as mother or father.. Between 4 and 6, imitative social play tends to be governed by one player acting as a central person and the others acting in satellite roles, by players taking turns and alternating the roles, or by all the players doing much the same thing at the same time.
      - Model-building play: About age 4, model-building play becomes explicit, when blocks are organized into buildings, trucks into highway traffic, dishes into tea parties. Children begin to put elements of their experiences together in unique ways.
    - - onlooker: watches other children playing and may initiate conversations with them (2)
      - parallel: d plays alone, but with toys like those that other children are using, or plays in a manner that mimics the behavior of playing children (2-3)
      - solitary: plays alone and independently
      - associative: Social interaction and communication are involved in associative play, but with little or no organization (3-4)
      - cooperative: organized, and the group has a purpose (4-5)
    - - play to be an imaginary situation governed by social rules.
  - - - Getting along involves recognition of the rights of others
    - - Boys tend to have more extensive social supports, Boys look to their social supports for afirmation
      - girls have intimate support, girls look to theirs for help to solve a problem
  - - - communication (talking and listening)
      - cooperation (taking turns, sharing)
      - participation (playing with others, paying attention)
      - validation/support (offering encouragement or help)
    - - emotional (Does the child interpret others’ emotions correctly? empathize?)
      - language (Does the child make relevant responses to peers’ communications? communicate desires clearly?)
      - social (Does the child cooperate? share? boast?)
      - physical (Does the child resort to aggression to resolve conflicts?
  - - - Lev Vygotsky (1978) postulated that a more knowledgeable person, such as a teacher or an expert peer, initially guides the learner’s, or novice’s, activity
        
        (1) his or her actual development, or what he or she can do independently, and (2) his or her potential development, or what he or she can do while participating with more capable others
    - - The child may learn the consequences of behavior by observing someone else. For example, pinching another results in being punished by the teacher, or getting to the swings first results in getting the longest turn
      - A model may suggest how a child can behave in a new situation. For example, when the children lined up at the edge of the pool for their first dive, Maureen was first. She said, “I can do it. I’ve watched my brother hundreds of times.” As the instructor was showing her how to hold her arms and keep her head down, the others watched nervously. In a second, she hit the water, and in another few seconds she popped up smiling. The others relaxed
      - The observing child may learn how to do something new that he could not do previously (such as drawing a picture of a dog) or would probably not have thought of (such as riding a bike with “no hands”)
  - - - Domination needs—need to feel powerful, superior
        
        Impulsive, low tolerance for frustration, easily angered
        
        Usually physically stronger than peers
        
        Difficulty adhering to rules
        
        Generally oppositional, defiant, aggressive
        
        Show little empathy
        
        A relatively positive self-concept
        
        Engage in antisocial behavior
    - - -Usually physically weaker than peers
        -Poor physical coordination
        -Exhibit fear of being hurt or hurting themselves
        -Cautious, sensitive, quiet, passive, submissive, shy
        -Anxious, insecure, unhappy
        -A relatively negative self-concept
        -Difficulty asserting themselves
        -Often relate better to adults than peers
  - - - situation
        
        prosocial situation asked the students whether they would help a classmate with a report if asked by their peers, instead of doing what they wanted to do, which was helping another classmate operate the film projector.
        
        neutral situation: asked the students whether they would go to a movie if asked by their peers, even if they were not particularly interested in that movie.
        
        antisocial situation asked the students whether they would steal some candy if a peer wanted help in doing it.
      - personal values: In general, the sixth- to ninth-graders exhibited the most conforming behavior
      - age: children are most susceptible to the influence of peers in middle childhood and become less conforming in adolescence
  - - - looking glass self
      - generalized other
    - - They are often preferred to other socializing agent
      - they influence not only social development, but cognitive and psychological development as well.
      - They satisfy certain belonging needs.
    - - inwardly the dynamics of the peer group reveal that some members are more equal than others
      - outwardly the peer group appears to be made up of equal
  - - - Social Cognition in the Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)
        
        assumptive reality: a theory about reality assumed to be true without examining or evaluating contradictory data
        
        cognitive conceit: Elkind’s term for children in Piaget’s stage of concrete operations who put too much faith in their reasoning ability and cleverness
      - Social Cognition in the Formal Operational Stage (11 & up)
        
        reality testing: testing assumptions against facts
        
        imaginary audience: the beliefs that others are as concerned with one’s behavior and appearance as one is oneself
      - Social Cognition in the Concrete Operational Stage (2-7)
        
        characterized by intuitive, rather than logical, thought.
    - - “The growing and developing youths, faced with this psychological revolution within them, and with tangible adult tasks ahead of them, are now primarily concerned with what they appear to be in the eyes of others as compared with what they feel they are"
      - who they are by affirming who they are not.
      - basic trust versus basic mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, d industry versus inferiority
  - - - Frustration and competition contribute to hostility between groups.
      - Competition between groups fosters cohesiveness within groups
      - Groups develop norms—standards that serve to guide and regulate individuals’ actions as members of a group
      - Intergroup hostility can often be reduced by setting up a superordinate, or common, goal that requires the mutual efforts of both groups. When overriding goals that are real and important for all concerned need to be achieved, then hostility between groups diminishes
      - Groups tend to stratify, with some individuals assuming more dominant roles and others more submissive ones.