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History of Moral Theology (The Age of the Fathers (Moral teachings…
History of Moral Theology
The Age of the Fathers
Fundamental elements
Constant reference to Sacred Scripture, showing Christianity to be a new way of life centered on the risen Lord
Unity of the faithful in creed, code, and cult was important
No distinction between doctrine and morals. Christians are expected to put into practice the faith they profess
Moral teachings
No systematic presentation of morality. Concerns were immediate and practical
Writings in early post-apostolic period are mainly homilies and treatises - offering moral catechesis and instruction
Didache - offers a compendium of moral teaching. Warns against idolatrous practices, superstition, and fornication. Also encourages to provide for the needy
Letter of Clement of Rome - presents penance and conversion as the virtues that will lead to peace and order
Ignatius of Antioch - only those who accept Christ in the person of his Church with its teaching and commandments may receive "the bread of God". Also there is an obligation to spread the Gospel by prayer and conduct
African Fathers
Commented on living in a pagan society and culture
Tertullian - used many legal terms such as debt, guilt, satisfaction, and compensation. Sin consists in breaking the law of the Gospel
Eastern Fathers
Clement of Alexandria - integrates Greek philosophy with Christian moral ideal. Christ was sent to correct our evil tendencies that obscure the image of God in us. Total self-mastery is the ideal the motivates the Christian art of living
Origen - man was made in the "image" of God, but the perfection of God's likeness in us only comes about in the end through our striving to imitate God
Cyril of Jerusalem - moral life appears as flowing from the baptismal life in Christ
John Chrysostom - evangelical perfection is within reach of all Christians, not just monks, clergy, and virgins. The Sermon on the Mount attacks the roots of evildoing. Also, CHristians must aid the poor and needy because Christ is identified with them
Western Fathers
Ambrose - the will of God found in Scripture provides the foundation of moral teaching. Also emphasizes the virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. He provides the first case-approach to moral theology
Augustine - development of moral theology from the ideas of grace, freedom, divine love and concupiscence, the kingdom of God and the kingdom of Satan, original sin and the restoration of grace, faith and works, natural law, and revealed law
Christian ethics was very much concerned with the question of happiness - only in God can one be fully happy and fulfilled
Mystical communion
The Fathers saw spirituality as the high point of Christian ethics. Sharing in the divine life was the final goal of Christian existence
Ideals of martyrdom, virginity, prayer, and monasticism
The Middle Ages
Privatization of Sacrament of Penance
Influenced by secular legal system with fines and penalties as satisfaction for crimes. Led to seeing human relationship with God as legal and commercial
Many types of penances were given, usually taken from monastic ascetical practices, such as exile, fasting, beatings, abstinence
Moral theology became attached to the specific needs of confessors. So penitential books were developed to give the appropriate penance for a given sin
Books did not focus on Christian way of life, but only the types of sin. Christian life became a matter of avoiding sin as opposed to following Christ. Emphasis placed on the nature of the individual moral act
Systematic Theology Universities
No distinction between doctrinal and moral themes. Moral questions were treated in presentations on creation, the Fall, the incarnation ,and the sacraments
Thomas Aquinas
No separation of doctrinal from moral theology because there is no separation of truth from behavior
Our journey is in search of happiness, which culminates in the vision of God
The way of the theological virtues renders God present to us
The Gospel is not a text or external word, but a dynamic inner principle
The new law is the grace of the Holy Spirit given to those who believe in Christ. Written codes are only secondary principles that help us to use the grace of God correctly
Morality operates principally at the level of the interior act, and secondarily at the level of the exterior act
Nominalism (from Ockham)
No such thing as human nature, only individuals exist. Morality revolves around the individual moral act
Led to casuistry - a case-study approach to morality
Pursuit of the Spiritual Life
Monasticism was the mainstay of religion and civilization
Monasticism seemed to be the true way of perfection - practicing the Christian virtues in the purest possible manner
There was a trend towards interiorization
Renaissance, Reformation, and Counter-Reformation
Manualist Tradition
The Council of Trent decreed on the administration of the sacrament of Penance, which gave shape to moral theology in this period
Moral theology became a form of pastoral or ministerial reflection
The concern of moral theology was to ascertain whether or not the penitent had sinned
Manuals were written to guide penance
First part - general principles of the moral life
Second part - commandments of God and the Church, sacraments, censures and indulgences, and particular obligations of the various states of life
A rigorous systematization corresponding to an internal logic of a morality of obligation. Love was subordinated to the commandments. Moral theology became the handmaid of cannon law
Christian Spirituality
Ignatius of Loyola - emphasized the unity of prayer and action in the Spiritual Exercises. Also developed reliable rules for discerning the movements of the soul
Francis de Sales - emphasized that all were called to be saints, and so all must orient their lives towards that goal
Alphonsus Liguori - spiritual realism and pastoral approach pervaded his teaching
Modern Age
Renewal of Moral Theology
In Tübingen, there was a renewal in biblical studies and seeking the perfect ideal of the Christian way. The Gospel image of the kingdom of God became the center of moral theology
Neo-Thomist manuals presented an ethic of virtue
Catholic ethics has always been situation, recognizing that certain circumstances and alter the morality of a specific act
Different from the situation ethics developed by Protestant theologians, which focused more on the situation than to norms - leads to relativism and pragmatism
Catholic Social Doctrine
Based on the dignity of the human person created in the image of God. Social doctrine expounds upon human rights and duties that protect this digntiy
Rerum Novarum
- beginning of systematic presentation of Catholic social ethics - concerned with workers' rights and the economy
Vatican II brings moral theology full-circle and re-emphasizes the life in Christ and the Spirit, celebrated in sacrament, taking into account the new developments