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Approaches in Psychology (Cognitive Approach (Role of Schema (schema are…

- - - - learning through association and was first demonstrated by Pavlov
        
        Pavlov revealed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to sound of a bell
        
        Pavlov's dogs learnt to associate a stimulus (bell) with another stimulus (food)
        
        Pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus can come to elicit a new conditioned response through association
    - - Skinner suggested that learning is an active process - humans / animals operate in their environment
      - three types of consequences of behaviour
        
        Positive Reinforcement
        
        receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
        
        increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
        
        Negative Reinforcement
        
        occurs when animal / human avoids doing something unpleasant
        
        increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
        
        Punishment
        
        an unpleasant consequence of behavour
        
        punishment decreases likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
  - - - for indirect learning to take place - individual observes behaviour of others
      - the learner may imitate this behaviour if rewarded rather than punished
        
        learner observes behaviour - more importantly observe consequences
    - - SLT described as a bridge between learning theory and cognitive approach as it focuses on mental factors and learning
        
        mental factors mediate (intervene) in learning precess to determine whether new response is acquired
      - four mediational processes:
        
        Attention
        
        extent to which we notice certain behaviours
        
        Retention
        
        how well the behaviour is remembered
        
        Motor Reproduction
        
        ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
        
        Motivation
        
        the will to perform the behaviour - often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded / punished
    - - people (especially children) more likely to imitate behaviours with those they identify - role models
        
        process is called 'modelling'
        
        person becomes a role model if they're seen to possess similar characteristics to observer / are attractive / have high status
        
        role models may not be present in environment
- - - - suggests information flows through the cognitive system in stages in the multi-store model
      - uses computer models where the mind is compared to a computer - information is processed similarly (coding and stores)
  - - - babies born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours (sucking / grasping)
      - as we age - schema more detailed / sophisticated
    - - may distort out interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors
- - - - if identical - monozygotic twins found to have higher concordance rates than non identical (dizygotic) for musical ability / schizophrenia
        
        asa monozygotic twins share 100% of genes while dizygotic share 50%
  - - - main principle is that genetically determined behaviour that enhances individuals survival will continue in future generations
      - happens in a similar way to a farmer deciding which animals to use for breeding
      - in nature this happens naturally as some traits give possessor certain advantages
- - - - brain and the spinal chord
      - spinal chord responsible for reflex actions
    - - transmits messages via millions of neurons to form CNS
      - Autonomic Nervous System
        
        governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress
      - Somatic Nervous System
        
        controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
  - - - endocrine system acts alongside nervous system but more slowly
      - various glads in the body produces hormones secreted into bloodstream
      - pituitary gland in the brain controls the release of hormones from other endocrine glands in the body
    - - during stressful events, endocrine system and autonomic nervous system work together
      - when stress occurs - hypothalamus triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system
        
        once threat passes - parasympathetic nervous system returns to resting state
      - stress hormone adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream
        
        adrenaline triggers the physiological changes in the body for fight / flight response
  - - - vary in size from less than a millimetre to a metre long
      - cell body contains nucleus with genetic information
      - branch-like structures called dendrites protrude from cell body
      - axon carries impulse away from cell body down neuron (covered in myelin sheath for protection / speeds up impulse)
      - myelin sheath segmented by gaps called Nodes of Ranvier (speeds up transmission - impulse forced to jump)
      - Electric Transmission
        
        when a neuron is in a resting state - inside of cell is negatively charged compared to outside
        
        when neuron activated by stimulus - becomes positively charged causing an action potential
  - - - neurons communicate via neural networks (each neuron separated by a synapse)
      - signals within neurons are transmitted electrically but signals between synapses are chemically transmitted
      - when electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron - triggers the release of neurotransmitter from vesicles
    - - neurotransmitters are the chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron
      - once neurotransmitters cross gap - taken up by the post synaptic receptor site
        
        chemical impulse then turns back into an electrical one
      - each neurotransmitter has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a post-synaptic receptor site
    - - neurotransmitters either have an exitatory / inhibitory effect on neighbouring neuron
      - by increasing positive / negative charges