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The development of imperialism, c1857- c1890: Imperial and colonial policy

- - - - Worked as a diplomat
      - Made responsible to Secretary of State for India
      - Relied on native rulers- 565 nominally independent Princely States
      - Direct representative of the British Crown in India
      - Provinces: represented by provincial governors with legislative councils, district officers oversaw local councils and report practical issues
      - Lord Canning (1st Viceroy of India)
      - Legislative Council of five (responsibilities finance, law, army, economy, home affairs)
      - Both offices (Viceroy Office and Governor of India) avoid conflict of interest
    - - Vested with complete authority and control over Indian administration
      - Political head of India
      - Exercise the powers which were being enjoyed by the Court of Directors and Board of control
      - Member of the British cabinet
      - Govern India directly
      - Responsible ultimately to the British Parliament
      - Lord Stanley (1st Secretary of State for India)
      - Empowered to preside at the meetings of the Indian Council
      - Vote and cast a vote in case of a tie
      - Empowered to send and receive secret messages and dispatches from Governor General
      - Not bound to communicate these to Indian Council
    - - Professional bureaucracy of British officials
      - Academic examinations
      - British civil servants- employed members of Indian Civil Service
      - Open to all races- senior civil servants virtually all white males
      - Bilingual Indians recruited as low-level clerks across 13 provinces
      - Collection taxes/ maintenance law & order/ running of courts
      - East India Company courts merged with Crown Courts, English law prevailed
- - - - Africans incapable developing natural resources found in central Africa- Europe intervention necessary
      - Routes to Africa’s great lakes needed developing by building roads/ railways
      - Desire protect Belgian interests in Congo
      - International African Association established co-ordinate European’s efforts
      - King Leopold of Belgium conference explorers/ leaders’ geographical societies across Europe
      - Suppose: promote co-operation reality: heightened competition (suspicious Leopold’s intentions)
      - International African Association hired Henry Morton Stanley (Britain’s Royal Geographical Society)- advice in Congo region
      - Leopold establish own Congo empire?
      - French: Italian-born Pierre de Brazza, extended control Senegal into Western Sudan (1879)
      - Germans: Gustav Nachtigal assert influence
      - Portugal: control mouth Congo River (1884)
    - - Foreign ministers 14 Europeans states and USA but France, Germany, Great Britain and Portugal (control most colonial Africa)
      - Securing agreements both basins/ mouths Congo and Niger rivers remain neutral/ open trade
      - German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initiated/ hosted Berlin Conference
      - Negotiated respective claims territory- formally mapped out into recognised spheres of influence across Africa
      - 1884: 80% Africa under local control- European powers restricted coastal areas
      - General Act
        
        Powers support/ protect religious, scientific or charitable undertakings, Christian missionaries, scientists/ explorers
        
        Powers took possession further land on coasts of Africa should notify the signatories of the Act- enable them assert any claims of own
        
        Powers with influence in area help protect indigenous people/ suppress slave trade
        
        Principle known as ‘effective occupation’- assert claim land ‘effectively’ occupied and notify powers. ONLY if another power could put rival claim was right colonise questioned
        
        1900: 90% continent under European power
        
        Success: European relations, expand empires in ordered fashion
        
        Africa safety-valve for Europe: ‘safe arena’-AJP Taylor
        
        Failure: indigenous people, no African representation, mapped out spheres influence little concern natural borders or ethnic, linguistic or religious division
        
        No concerted effort combat African/ Arab slave trade NO attention indigenous concerns
        
        Free trade in these regions
        
        All nations permitted trade in basin of Congo and its outlets