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Power to effect change (POWER: A has power over B to the extent that he…
Power to effect change
POWER: A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do (Dahl, 1957)
- power = looking at the source (e.g. influence)
- power = looking at the outcome (e.g. who had the capability)
Strategic Contingencies Theory - context!
- in modern orgs, a subunit's power may be partially determined by their ability to cope w/ uncertainties for other subunits
Subunit power sources
- uncertainty reduction: extent to which a subunit reduces uncertainty for other subunits
- non-substitutability: extent to which a subunit's products or services cannot be obtained elsewhere
- centrality
--> pervasiveness: extent to which the workflows of a subunit connect w/ the workflows of other subunits
--> workflow immediacy: the speed and severity w/ which the workflows of a subunit affect the final output of the org
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO POWERLESSNESS
(Kanter, 1979)
- rules inherent in the job
- predecessors in the job
- task variety
- physical location (central/distant)
- interpersonal contact in the job
- participation in task forces
- advancement prospects of subordinates
- focus of tasks (outside/inside work unit)
extreme power corrupts, but extreme powerlessness corrupts too
- sharing power gives you power
- power derives from activities rather than individuals. an individual/subunit's power is never absolute and derives ultimately from the context of the situation (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977)
Power is a function of dependency
A has power over B, if B is dependent on A.Dependency is created by:
- ability to reward/punish
- resources
- it is increased if the thing is non-substitutable or scarce
more dependency in B = more power A
INTERPERSONAL POWER
SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL POWER
(French & Raven, 1959)FORMAL tend to comes from position
- Reward: control over rewarding outcomes (e.g. praise, promotions, enjoyable work)
- Coercive: control over punishing outcomes (e.g. undesirable work, pay loss, dismissal)
- Legitimate: occupation of legitimate position of authority (e.g. perceived authority)
INFORMAL power bases that everyone has access to
- Referent: attractiveness, charisma
- Expert: expertise, knowledge, talent
WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM
(*KANTER, 1979)
- effective power comes from access to the right resources, info, & support + ability to get cooperation in doing what is necessary
3 lines
- line of supply - mgrs have capacity to bring in things that their own org domain needs
- line of info - to be "in the know"
- line of support - ability for non-ordinary action aka mgrs know they can innovate/ do risk-taking activities
What leads to powerlessness:
- ineffective first-line supervisors - their behaviour w/ workers/high mgt
- petty interest protection and conservatism of staff professionals - need to be entrenched in org power network to get resources
- crises of leadership at top - if long-term goals go unattended
POWER BASES DURING CHANGE
(MUNDUATE & DORADO, 1998)
- studied change from: authoritarian style, positional/hierarchical --> mgt based on dialogue, agreement, and use of participation
- of the formal bases, only reward power matters
- referent power is really important
- leads to cooperative beh. + commitment
depends on
PERCEPTIONS OF OTHERSactual authority = title
perceived authority = beliefs of one that the other has authority
- individuals can operate from several bases of power, and use different bases and combos in different contexts and times
INFLUENCE TACTICS
(*BENNEBROEK & BOONSTRA, 1998)
- rational persuasion: use logical arguments and facts to argue your position
- inspirational appeal: appeal to the target's values and ideals
- consultation: allow the target to participate in how the request is going to be carried out
- ingratiation: use praise, flattery, friendly or helpful behaviour
- personal appeals: appeal to the target's feeling of loyalty and friendship
- exchange: offer an exchange of favors
- coalitions: enlist others to help influence the target
- legitimating tactics: est. legitimacy of request by claiming authority/right to make it (e.g. boss told me to tell you)
- pressure: use threats and demands
Are diff tactics used in times of change?
- everyone uses top 3 tactics - rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation
- in change env't, frequency differs - ingratiation was used more frequently, several tactics used in ALL directions (downwards, upwards, horizontal)
.: during change, people are more flexible
limitation:
- study was on constructive change process, may be diff for orgs facing downsizing, cutbacks, etc
- absence of control group
(Yukl, 2000)
Most effective are RATIONAL TACTICS
- rational persuasion
- consultation
- inspirational appeals
feel like you have more control
Responses:
- engagement/commitment
- compliance
- rarely get resistance
Moderately effective are SOFT TACTICS
- ingratiation
- exchange
- personal appeals
moderate effectiveness b/c if done poorly, risk of feeling manipulative
Responses:
Least effective are HARD TACTICS
- pressure
- coalitions
these use coercive P
Responses:
- compliance
- resistance
- rarely get commitment
-
POLITICAL SKILL
(FERRIS et al, 2000)
- ability to relate well, demonstrate socially appropriate behaviour in an engaging manner that creates trust, sincerity and confidence
knowing what to do and doing it sincerely
- high PS = able to express emotion in a genuine and convincing manner
PS = distinct type of social skill
- social intelligence: ability to understand and manage people
- emotional intelligence: ability to monitor own and others feelings and emotions
- ego-resiliency: ability to adapt well to diff situation (how quick you bounce back/ how you react in adverse situations)
- social self-efficacy: belief or confidence in ability to control social situation
- self monitoring: sensitive and responds to social cues
- tacit knowledge and practical intelligence: knowledge that allows ppl to achieve goals they personally value
social capital: extensive networks of connections or forms w/ others
- PS helps dev. and maintain high quality reputations and is critical for managerial effectiveness
- PS single strongest predictor for perf
- PS + intelligence = 2 generally effective predictors of perf across many jobs
- PS may enhance flexibility = good for dynamic env't
PS STRATEGIES
- solve other ppl's most imp problems
- have valued resources
- be an expert
- create social capital
- hold formal positions of authority
- write (and avoid) the rules
- control the agenda
- be attractive
- persuade
- threaten harm :open_mouth:
POWER - DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD
(*PEARCE, 2012)
- power can be good for health but damage social intelligence and diagnostic skills
- high power --> happier, more promos, better job perf
- however, potentially can lead to impolite, bossier, speak out of turn, aggressive, less conforming, ignore effects on others
Sources of power:
Sources of politicking:
- scarcity, conflict, ambiguity/uncertainty # #