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Social Psychology (Attitudes (changing attitudes (Cognitive Dissonance…

- - - - elaboration likelihood model
        
        Peripheral Route of Persuasion: attitude change based on superficial factors (appearance, charisma of person presenting argument). Causes classical conditioning of positive attitude about neutral object
        
        Central Route of Persuasion: attitude change when evidence and arguments are carefully evaluated
      - qualities of effective persuasion
        
        understandable
        
        holds attention
        
        convincing
        
        appeal to emotions
        
        repeated many times #
        
        memorable
        
        one sided argument if audience gullible/on speakers side. two sided if audience is critical
    - - people change attitudes to bring them into line with their behavior (smoking won't hurt me because i don't smoke often/safely)
      - types of dissonance
        
        Justification of Effort: people value group membership more if initiation was harsh
        
        insufficient justification: Festinger and Carlsmith: paid $1 to lie about enjoyment of boring study. Insufficient monetary justification for lying --> convinced themselves that the task had actually been enjoyable/information/important/worth repeating
        
        Cooper and Fazio: requirements for attitude change from dissonance
        
        attitude-discrepant behaviors must produce unwanted negative consequences (ie lying about liking clothes to make someone feel good doesn't actually make you like the clothes)
        
        personal responsibility for negative consequences (believe you voluntarily caused consequences)
        
        physical arousal from discomfort about actions
        
        aware that arousal is caused by attitude-discrepant behavior
        
        Norton: cognitive dissonance can be produced by observing/knowing about people who you like and respect participating in attitude-discrepant behavior
        
        confronting hypocrisy brings cognitive dissonance to the surface and can change behavior
        
        Postdecisional Dissonance: after making a choice between two equal options, come to focus on chosen option's good qualities and unchosen option's bad qualities
        
        effect occurs automatically with minimal cognitive processing
        
        can be present even in patients with longterm memory loss
      - dissonance between beliefs (smoking is bad) and actions (smoking) causes anxiety and tension
      - people change beliefs to justify irrational fears (earthquake in India)
      - dissonance decreases if you view inconsistent behavior to be of your own choosing
  - - - measured with Implicit Attitude Test (IAT): how fast you associate concepts or objects with negative or positive words. may not be effective way to predict racial descrimination
- - - - Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment
        
        applications to prisons and Abu Ghraib. Not "bad apple" guards but top down authorization that allowed normal people to do terrible things
    - - Social Facilation: the presence of others enhances performance
        
        arousal --> dominant response (response most likely to be performed in that situation)
        
        enhanced performance if required response easy or well learned, impair performance if novel or less well learned
        
        arousal by others
    - - risky shift effect: groups often make riskier decisions than individuals do
      - group polarization: initial attitudes of group members lead the group to either be more cautious or more risky
      - groupthink: extreme polarization when group makes bad decision for sake of cordiality to maintain cohesiveness. Occurs when under pressure, facing external threats, biased
  - - - give consistent wrong answer --> subject gives wrong answer 37% of time
      - with partner, only 5% go with group
      - write answer down --> conformity drops by 2/3 (no normative conformity)
      - reasons for conformity
        
        informational conformity: desire to be right and think group might provide valuable information
        
        Normative conformity: don't want embarrassment of wrong answer, based on social need for rules (norms)
        
        Sherif: ask how far stationary light moves in dark room (autokinetic effect). Individual participants have large difference, but if put in room together they change their estimates until they agree
        
        men don't seek help because admire other men who don't seek help/tell them not to seek help
    - - feeling of incompetence or insecurity
      - group has at least 3 people
      - group is unanimous
      - one admires group's status and attractiveness
      - no prior commitment to response
      - group observes behavior
      - XXX used to think women conformed more but actually testing situations were just more uncomfortable for them
  - - - 70% of participants obeyed to maximum voltage
      - decline more dramatic towards beginning (people who refuse to participate do so earlier)
      - less effective without "Yale" or lab coat
      - more obedience when telling someone else to push button
      - normal people who experienced great distress and yet continued after basic commands to do so
      - criticisms: unethical, based on trusting/dependent relationship between researcher and participant
      - obedience rates have not changed significantly over time since experiment
      - no difference in obedience between men and women
      - led to questions about ethics of deception in research
    - - authority figure/prestige. Makes people believe they are not ultimately responsible
      - psychological distance between individual's actions and the result of those actions
      - dehumanizing the victim
  - - - debated whether this is motivated by empathy or selfishness
    - - helping when it is needed without any apparent reward for doing so
      - inclusive fitness: people act to save kin because of benefit of transmitting genes (kin selection)
      - Reciprocal Helping #
    - - Kitty Genovese case
      - undermines ideal of altruism
      - reasons
        
        diffusion of responsibility
        
        happens even in "imagined" groups
        
        evaluation apprehension: people fear making social blunders in ambiguous situations
        
        people with high fear of negative evaluation less likely to help when alone but help just as much as others when in groups
        
        people are less likely to help when they are anonymous and can remain so
        
        people weigh the costs vs benefits of helping
      - don't get help about smoke/person in need if others are there/are apathetic
      - hearing someone have a seizure, much less likely to call for help if other people are on the line
      - 5 steps before intervention
        
        notice emergency
        
        interpret situation as one in which help is needed, develop fear of embarrassment
        
        assume personal respnsibility
        
        decide what action to take
        
        take action
    - - hostility easily develops between two groups just because of competition
      - cooperation between these groups can reduce this because working toward a common goal reduces outgroup bias #
      - Jigsaw Classroom: students work together in mixed-race or mixed-sex groups in which each member is an expert in one aspect of the assignment and teach it to the others --> all members equally valuable
  - - - good mood
      - failure to pay attention/consider all options
      - foot-in-the-door effect: if people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable one b/c commit to a course of action and want to stay consistent
      - door-in-the-face: more likely to agree to small request after refusing big one. Reciprocity: feel compelled to compromise because requester has compromised
      - low-balling strategy once a person commits to low cost request they will comply after the request is changed to higher cost
  - - - social learning
      - social rejection
      - heat
      - negative emotions
    - - MAOA gene codes for MAO (monoamine oxidase) that regulates neurotransmitter activity, including serotonin and norepinephrine, mutations leads to aggression
      - MAOA has more effect if paired with risk factors (childhood abuse)
      - serotonin controls amygdala response to threat and prefrontal cortex control of aggressive behavior
      - testosterone has SMALL correlation so aggression, reduces impulse control. May be a result of aggressive behavior rather than cause (increase in athletes after winning)
    - - varies widely across culture
      - culture of honor: men primed to protect reputations through physical aggression (ex. Southern United States)
- - - - emphasized by collectivistic cultures
    - - emphasized by individualistic cultures
  - - - can influence behavior implicitly
      - guide attention toward information that confirms stereotype
      - may cause you to see "illusory correlations" (relationships that do not exist)
      - change memories to fit into stereotypes
      - subtyping: create new category for outliers rather than change stereotype
    - - beliefs (stereotypes)
      - emotions (hostility, fear, envy)
      - predisposition to act (to discriminate)
      - "modern racism": subtle forms of prejudice that coexist with the rejection of racist belief (believe that racism is no longer a problem and that minority groups demand too much social change). More indifference than hostility
    - - Ingroup bias/favoritism
        
        tendency to favor one's own group
        
        even happens under minimal group paradigm when groups are chosen randomly
        
        stronger between women than between men, possibly because of free expression of affection between women
      - outgroup homogeneity effect
        
        tendency to view members of another group as "all alike" or less varied than one's own group
      - group membership and the brain
        
        survival based on group membership, requires people understanding how to be good group members --> large prefrontal cortex, especially medial cortex which is important for thinking about other people/how they think of you. Less active when looking at outgroups b/c dehumanized
        
        pain regions more activated when seeing ingroup member harmed than outgroup, including fusiform face area, nucleus accumbens, insula, amygdala
      - present in many different species
      - conditions for group formation
        
        reciprocity
        
        if you help me ill help you
        
        transitivity
        
        share friend's ideas about other people
        
        very few rules lead to formation of ingroups and outgroups
      - social identity theory: ingroups consist of people who see themselves as members of the same social category and place value on that category
    - - computerized officer training can reduce effects of prejudice against shooting blacks
- - - - like original mona lisa better
      - people like mirror image of their own face better, others like regular image
  - - - symmetry
        
        younger bodies more symmteric
      - average
        
        composite images more attractive the more faces they include
        
        must be average of attractive people
    - - specific waist to hip ratio considered universally attractive
      - attractiveness associated with reproduction
      - men want more body fat than women think they do
    - - congressional candidates selected for competence based only on facial appearance one 70% of actual elections
      - amygdala important for judging trustworthiness
  - - - Passionate Love
      - Companionate Love
    - - men more likely to be sexually and romantically attracted to platonic friends
      - 1/4 of relationships start with friendship first (already companionate)
    - - being overly critical
      - heldping partner in contempt
        
        Ekman: still frames of conversation, can find micro expressions of contempt even before people realize they have contempt
      - being defensive
      - mentally withdrawing from relationship