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The social distribution of crime and deviance (by ethnicity, gender, and…

- - - - Carlen (1988) & Heidonsohn (1996) - differences between female and male crime arise from their different social circumstances, opportunities, socialisation, and the different impacts of informal and formal social control in a patriarchal society
      - The gender deal and the class deal
        
        The class deal - the material rewards that arise from working in paid employment, enabling women to purchase things like consumer goods and enjoy a respectable life and home.
        
        The gender deal - the rewards that arise from fulfilling their roles in the family and home, with material and emotional support from a male breadwinner.
      - The constraints of socialisation
        
        Carlen - women are socialised into performing a central role as 'guardians of domestic morality' and risk social disproval when they fail to do so.
        
        Women who committ crime face double jeopardy ('double deviants'), 'unlike proper women'.
        
        Heidonsohn suggests that women have more to lose than men because they face a greater risk of stigma or shame.
      - Social control and different spheres
        
        The private domestic sphere, e.g. domestic commitments means less time to commit crime
        
        The public sphere, e.g. patriarchal controls such as glass-ceiling restricts their opportunities to commit white-collar crime
        
        Women face losing their reputation
    - - Evidence for the thesis - First offenders half as likely to be given a sentence, shorter sentences, 'less serious' offence, less of a threat, more community serivice.
      - Evidence against the thesis
        
        Carlen (1988) - women's sentences reflects this double jeopardy as courts assess on the basis of their female role as well as the offence it self, 'evil women theory'.
        
        Walklate (2004) - less serious offences
        
        Not a case of leniency but women commit less serious offences, and have more 'mitigating factors' as well as men have more 'aggravating factors'
        
        Heidensohn (1996) - those who violate socially accepted patterns of women risk harsher punishments than men and that women face double jeopardy.
  - - - Adler (1975) - female crime increase due to the liberation of women in a changing society, given them more independence and opportunities to commit crime
      - Denscombe (2001) - increase in ladetter culturE
      - Silverstri (2012) - not that women are changing but the CJS is taking female crime more seriously
  - - - Connell (1987) - there is a hegemonic masculinty
      - Messerschmidt (1993) - 'asserting masculinity'
      - Lyng -the thrills and spills of 'edgework'
- - - - Strain and anomie (Merton) - blocked opportunities lead to innovation to achieve success.
      - Subcultural theories (Cohen; Cloward & Ohlin; Miller) - status frustration, focal concerns, and search for peer group status generate delinquent subcultures
      - Control theory ( Hirschi) - Lack of integrated and controlling social bonds
      - Marxist and neo-marxist theories - crimiogenic capitalism; crime as rational response to social inequality and social deprivation/poverty; selective law enforcement; crime as resistance to capitalism; distraction from white-collar and corporate crimes of the powerful.
      - Labelling theory - working class offenders are more likely to be labelled as criminal and to have the law selectively enforced against them.
      - Left Realism - Relative deprivation, marginalisation and subcultures combine to generate crime in a media-saturated bulimic consumer society from which the lower working class are socially excluded and in which they lack legitimate opportunities to access the consumer lifestyles they crave.
      - Right Realism/ rational choice and opportunity/ New Right - inadequate/ poor socialisation by a welfare-dependent workshy underclass combines with lack of community controls to make crime a rational choice
  - - - Strain theory and relative deprivation - Hard to see successful middle-class people as having legitimate means of achieving social goals blocked.
      - Control theory - socialised into aggressive management cultures
      - Differential association - Sutherland (1983) if people associate with others who commonly support illegal activities, they are more likely to commit them themselves.
      - Labelling theory - Nelken, avoid being labelling as criminal . Croall, no direct cause of harm so seen as 'less criminal'.
      - The seduction of crime and edgework - Katz (1988) and Lyng (1990), crime is seductive. Nelken, living in the fast lane and making risky choices is as important as the money.
      - Marxism - Box, Slapper and Tombs - the push to corporate crime is driven by criminogenic capitalism
- - - - Gilroy (1982) - crime by black people (70s) was a political action, representing a culture of resistance to inequality and oppressors in the form of police racism and harassment
    - - Hall et al (1978) - 1970s Britain was facing an economic and political crisis which threatened the dominance of ruling class ideology (a crisis of hegemony)
      - At the same time there was growing conflict between blacks and the police. The media picked up on this and thus the 'black mugger was born'.
      - A moral panic developed (a media fuelled exaggeration) and blacks became folk devils and scapegoats for societies problems
      - There was no real rise in robbery, but the moral panic was used to justify more repressive and aggressive policing, as well as a growing distrust, hostility, and resistance towards black people
      - The media exaggerated the extent of black crime therefore became a means of reasserting the dominance of ruling class ideas, and re-establishing there hegemony in society generally.
    - - The 'crisis of hegemony' does not exist
      - Gilroy seems to be imposing his own interpretations of the meaning of black crime, e.g. black crime is often committing within the group not against the ruling class
      - Lea & Young (1984) - most crimes are reported by the public, not uncovered by the police, so it is hard to explain black crime in terms of police racism.
  - - - Indirect racial discrimination
        
        Mistrust of the police
        
        Social position
      - Direct racial discrimination
        
        Stop and search
        
        Institutional racism
        
        Arrests, charges and court proceedings
        
        Discrimination in sentencing
        
        Over-representation in prison
        
        Sharp & Budd (2005) - white people committed more crime yet black people more likely to arrested or be convicted .