Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Finals - 25th (Archeology (Lithics, Ceramics, Metals, Trade & Exchange…

- - - - Despite lack of responsiveness, sleep is an active
        behaviour
      - Physiologically regulated
        – Homeostatically controlled by the brain
      - Non-Unitary - Multiple stages/states
        
        REM
        
        Non-REM
      - Polysomnography - Sleep Study, Tests for sleep disorders
        
        3 Measures of Sleep
        
        Electroencephalogram (EEG) - Reveals Brainwaves
        
        Electooculogram (EOG) - Records eye movements during REM sleep
        
        Electromyogram (EMG) - Detects loss of activity in neck muscles during some sleep stages
      - Sleep Stages - Sleep is categorized into different stages based on EEG patterns
        
        Non-REM
        
        Stages 2 (N2) - Light Sleep
        
        K-Complexs
        
        Sleep Spindles
        
        Stage 3 (N3) - Deep / Slow-Wave Sleep (20 - 50% Delta Activity)
        
        Delta Waves
        
        Sleep Walking & Talking
        
        Stage 4 (N3) - Deep / Slow-Wave Sleep (>50% Delta Activity)
        
        Stage 1 (N1) - Transition / Drowsy Sleep
        
        Axial Muscles Twitch (Hypnic Jerks)
        
        Transition form Alpha to Theta Activity
        
        Hypnogogic Hallucinations
        
        REM
      - REM Sleep / Dreaming Sleep
        
        Sleep Paralysis
        
        Emotionally Charged
        
        80% recall when woken during REM Sleep
        
        Dreams run in real time
  - - - The Neurobiological Approach
        
        Ribot, Alzheimer, Korsakoff – brain related memory
        disorders: recent vs. remote amnesia
        
        Donald Hebb – theory of neuronal association: “cells that fire
        together, wire together”
        
        Eric Kandel – Hebbian theory into reality: Memory IS long-lasting changes of synaptic efficacy
        
        Brenda Milner – HM and memory systems
        
        Ramón y Cajal – Neuron theory, synapses site of intercellular communication and modifications.
      - The Psychological Approach
        
        Aristotle – importance of association
        
        Hermann Ebbinghaus – forgetting, savings, massed vs. spaced training
        
        Muller and Pilzecker – rehearsal, consolidation, &
        interference
        
        William James – flavours of memory
        1) Phases (temporal staging – short- vs. long-term)
        2) Types of memories (habits vs. memories)
        
        Pavlov – conditioned reflexes, S-R learning
        
        Watson, Skinner - Behaviourism
    - - Location of the engram
        
        No one location, memory is widely distributed throughout the cerebral cortex
        
        The work of Karl Lashley
    - - Difficult to separate the idea of memory from psyche, sense of self, consciousness, and awareness
      - Memory does not appear to be a separate process (not independent from other forms of cognition)
      - Memory does not seem to be a unified process (there are multiple subtypes)
    - - Amnesia - The dysfunction of memory
        
        Kinds of Amnesia
        
        Anterograde Amnesia - Inability to form new memories
        
        Functional Amnesia - The body purposefully blocks traumatic memories to avoid stress
        
        Drug-Induced Amnesia
        
        Organic Amnesia - Amnesia caused by head trauma or disease
        
        Retrograde Amnesia - Inability to retrieve old memories
        
        Theodore Ribot
        
        Mnemonic Gradient / Law of Regression - Loss of memory is inversely related to the time elapsed
        between the event to be
        remembered and the injury.
        
        Role of the Medial Temporal Lobe
        
        Henry Molaison has MTL removed in an epilepsy correction surgery and could no longer form new memories (Short-Term Memory unimpaired)
      - Korsakoff Syndrome - Permanent Retrograde AND Anterograde amnesia
        
        Caused by damage to the medial dienchephalon caused by chronic alchoholism or a Vitamin B1 deficiency
    - - Conscious / Declarative/ Explicit Memory vs. Unconscious / Nondeclarative / Implicit Memory
      - Long-Term Memory
        
        Explicit Memory
        
        Semantic (Fact) Memory
        
        Episodic (Event) Memory
        
        Implicit Memory
        
        Procedural Memory
        
        Priming
        
        Conditioning
        
        Habituation
      - Short-Term Memory
      - Sensory Memory
      - Working Memory
        
        Visuospatial Sketchpad - Visual Working Memory
        
        Phonological Loop - Auditory Working Memory
        
        Central Executive - Decides what the working memory will pay attention to
        
        Episodic Buffer - Episodic Working Memory
    - - Primary Structures
        
        Medial Temporal Region
        
        Amygdala
        
        Entorhinal Cortex
        
        Receives projections from
        parahippocampal and perirhinal
        cortices; integrative function: first area
        to show cell death in Alzheimer’s
        disease
        
        Parahippocampal Cortex
        
        Receives connections from parietal
        cortex; believed to take part in
        visuospatial processing
        
        Perirhinal Cortex
        
        Receives connections from the visual
        regions of the ventral stream; believed
        to take part in visual object memory
        
        Hippocampus
        
        Frontal Cortex
      - Reciprocal Connections for Explicit Memory
        
        The neocortex projects to the entorhinal
        cortex, which projects back to the
        neocortex.
        
        Signals from the medial temporal
        regions to the cortical sensory regions
        keep the sensory experience alive in
        the brain: the neural record outlasts
        the actual experience.
        
        Pathway back to the neocortex means
        it is kept apprised of the information
        being processed in medial temporal
        regions.
        
        Reciprocal Neural Circuit
        
        Brainstem to Cortex Activating Systems
        
        Consists of
        
        Serotonin
        
        Noradrenaline
        
        Acetylcholine
        
        Medial Thalamus
        
        Prefrontal Cortex
        
        Temporal Lobe Structures
        
        Rest of the Neocortex
        
        Sensory and motor neocortical areas connect to the medial
        temporal regions.
        
        The temporal lobe structures are hypothesized to be central
        to long-term explicit memory forma?on.
        
        The prefrontal cortex is central to maintaining temporary (short-term)
        explicit memories as well as memory for the recency (chronological
        order) of explicit events.
      - Neural Circuit for Explicit Memory
        
        Mishkin & Colleagues
        
        Temporal Lobe Structures
        
        Frontal Lobe Structures
        
        Medial Thalamus
        
        Basal Forebrain / Activating Systems
      - Consolidation of Explicit memory
        
        Distributed Reinstatement Theory
        
        A learning episode rapidly produces a stored memory representation that is strong in the hippocampus but weak elsewhere.
        
        The memory is replayed on the time scale of hours or days after the
        learning, leading to enhanced representations outside the hippocampus
        
        Reconsolidation
        
        Restabilizing a memory trace after the
        memory is revisited
        
        Whenever a memory is replayed in the mind,
        it is open to further consolidation.
        
        New information is constantly being
        integrated into existing memory networks
        
        o It is possible to erase negative memories by
        using amnesic agents when the memory is
        revisited (e.g., in PTSD)
        
        Antithesis of reactivation
    - - Monkey experiments
      - Rat Experiments
        
        The Mumby Box
        
        Deficits caused by lesions in the Medial Temporal Lobe more noticable than deficits caused by lesions in the hippocampus
      - Rats vs. Monkeys - Object Recognition
        
        Extraneous damage is limited in rats
    - - All sensory systems project to the Frontal Lobe
      - Participates on many forms of short-term memory
        
        Cells fire when short term memory is active and aren't firing when errors are made
    - - Hippocampus may temporarily store memory (standard consolidation theory)
      - perhaps hippocampus stores memories permanently but they get stronger over time
    - - Neural Circuit for Implicit memory
        
        Mishkin & Colleagues proposed circuit for implicit memory
        
        Conponents
        
        Ventral Thalamus
        
        Substantia Nigra
        
        Premotor Cortex
        
        Basal Ganglia
        
        Basal ganglia receive input from the entire neocortex and send
        projections first to the ventral thalamus and then to the premotor cortex.
        
        Basal ganglia also receive widely and densely distributed projections
        from dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra.
    - - Neural Circuit for Emotional Memory
        
        Amygdala has close connections with medial temporal cor?cal
        structures as well as with the rest of the cortex.
        
        Sends projections to:
        
        brainstem structures that control autonomic responses such as blood
        pressure and heart rate.
        
        hypothalamus, which controls hormonal systems.
        
        Periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), which affects pain percep?on.
        
        the basal ganglia, to tap into the implicit memory system.
        
        Proposed Circuit:
        
        Amygdala
        
        Medial Temporal Cortex
        
        Brainstem
        
        Hypothalamus
        
        PGM
        
        Basal Ganglia
      - Memory for the affective properties of stimuli or events
      - Can be implicit or explicit
      - Amygdala is critical for emotional memory.
        
        Damage to amygdala abolishes emotional memory but has lisle
        effect on implicit or explicit memory.
    - - Is a sensory-motor device
      - Is dynamic and modifyable
      - Is a storage device
    - - Process by which behavioural modifications (via learning)
        are maintained
      - Process by which knowledge is maintained
    - - Process by which the environment or experience modifies
        behaviour
      - Process by which knowledge is acquired
    - - Premises
        
        Premise 1 - The operation of the nervous
        system is completely responsible for behaviour
        and mind
        
        Premise 2 - Environmental influences that
        modify behaviour or thought must be reflected
        as functional (&/or structural) changes in the
        nervous system
      - Key Concepts:
        
        The brain is plastic
        – It exhibits activity‐dependent changes in structure (anatomy)
        and function (physiology)
        • Neuroplasticity
        
        Learning involves making plastic changes in the brain
        – These changes affect neural responses and thus influence
        behaviour
        
        Memory involves the retention of these plastic changes
        – Possibility to influence future behaviour
        • Memory trace
        
        The big question:
        – WHERE & HOW do these changes occur?
      - Approaches
        
        Psychological (Black Box) Approach
        
        Neurobiological Approach (Brain System / Synapses / Molecules