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Patterns of urban land use reflect a compromise between forces which…

- - - - The most
        rapid growth in urban populations thus occurs
        as countries move from low-income to middle-income levels
      - Urbanisation levels rise with income as
        resources are moved from the primarily rural
        agricultural sector to the more urbanised industry
        and service sectors
        
        the attractiveness of urban areas for the location of industry and services stems from scale economies in production, lower transport costs, modest use of land by industry and services as an input to production, externalities among firms (postive), linkages across firms and potential agglomoration economies
        
        The paper states 'if this view holds global levels of urbanisation will increase'. Has it?
      - China and India contain nearly two-thirds
        of the population in all low-income countries,
        and both already have large cities and above
        average rates of economic growth. If the
        urban population of China or India doubles, will their large cities also double in size?
        
        Evidence indicates that existing large cities in
        large developing countries grow at roughly
        the same, or a bit lower, rate as the overall
        urban population. In addition to country size,
        the type of government also infuences the
        growth of large cities.
        
        In countries with unitary
        governments, large cities have tended to
        grow faster than the urbanisation level, while
        large-city growth has been slower in countries
        with federal governments
  - - - Population growth in large cities usually does not increase the population density of high-density areas, but promotes densification of less-developed areas and expansion at the urban fringe
        
        In particular, population densities in the most central zones frequently decline as households are displaced by the expansion of other activities. This is a very robust finding in both industrial and developing countries and has been observed in cities as diverse as Bangkok, Bogota, Mexico City, Shanghai and Tokyo.1
        
        Development towards the periphery is
        driven by lower land prices and lower development
        costs
        
        Peripheral development is also permitted by the wide availability of motorised modes of passenger transport in the cities of both industrial and developing countries. The shift from walking to motorbuses travelling
        on streets, the most common transit mode in developing countries, typically triples travel speeds from 5 km per hour to 15± 20 km per hour
        
        The Population is large cities is more variegated than in small cities.
        
        large cities (industrial or developing) have an original center or CBD but also a number of sub-centres which form a polycentric development pattern
        
        Paris is a good example
        
        Small cities do not have this.
        
        Households typically prefer larger dwelling units. House prices < at the periphery of cities, large households are often more decentralised
        
        Bogota. In the centre, average household size = 2 people and house hold size increase regularly with distance from centre, reaching 5 persons at the periphery. The pattern is consistent with urban location theory
        
        household income and distance from the centre does not have a consistent relationship
  - - - Analysis of US data indicates that industry is
        attracted by freeways and special facilities
        such as airports, but not by central locations
      - In developing countries, urban industrial employment exhibits
        strong patterns of decentralisation
        
        In Shanghai, for exam- ple, decentralisation stems from the development of both specialised satellite industrial towns and rural industry. A third of Shanghai’s industrial workers were rural in 1991
      - Employment is typically more centralised in an urban area than is the population.
        
        The typical commuter in an urban area commutes from a residence more distant from the centre to a workplace less distant from the centre
        
        There are also similar job location patterns within cities by type of industry. Manufacturingemployment is more decentralised than
        service employment
        
        manufacturing needs more space, better infrastructure, and improved freight transport by truck. Reduced need for freight truck in cities = < congestion. As manufacturing moves out, services move in. Retail remains prominent in the centre but is eventually replaced by law, finance etc.
  - - - In industrial and developing countries, the patterns of population and employment decentralisation, obviously have profound implications for transport because they are important determinants of the work-trip travel pattern.
    - - Large transit systems built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a major impact on their cities’ development patterns, improving access to the central business district and promoting relatively high-density development along well-defined
        transit corridors.
      - If transport is a determinant of land-use development, what impact will the construction of a large transit system have on the development pattern of an existing metropolitan area? Will it increase residential densities or centralise employment?
        
        More recent analyses of experience with new
        subway systems in the US show that costs
        have been well above, and ridership levels well below, forecasts or projections made when the projects were reviewed and approved
        
        The construction costs of metros in
        developing countries are so high that they
        crowd out many other investments and can
        even have consequences for macroeconomic management
        
        YouTube video - bus network the most effective method of urban transportation
        
        The pattern of decentralisation in older metropolitan areas and the low densities of newer auto-oriented cities make it more costly to serve urban travellers by transit. Moreover, superimposing transit systems on existing cities has had minimal effects
        on land-use patterns. These two facts have led many analysts to argue that land-use controls should be used as an instrument to
        affect urban travel demand.
        
        Residential location theory predicts that commuters will commute down the rent gradient, trading off transport costs to gain location rent savings; it does not predict that commuters minimise travel time. The fact that residents of British New Towns commute out (mainly by train) from these towns to their jobs in nearby large cities, and that workers in those towns drive away from their jobs to homes in the surrounding countryside is what residential location theory predicts.
  - - - Like other prices in an economy, land
        prices perform two roles:
        
        In their allocative role, land prices indicate
        the value of land to produc ers and signal how
        land should be used.
        
        In their distributive role, land rents and increases in land values produce returns to land-owners
  - - - Latin America - privitisation of infrastructure services such as telecommunications, electric power and transport services
      - Asia - private investment in infrastructure through concessions and contracts
    - - U.S.A - macro-level studies suggest that infrastructure services contribute significantly to economic growth (Munnell, 1992)
  - - - The largest metropolitan areas converging to similarly decentralised structures with multiple sub-centres, highly decentralised manufacturing employment and emerging specialisation of the CBD in service employment
    - - Industrial countries have experienced decreases in transit use as auto ownership levels have risen.
    - - In market-based cities, land rents are closely related to development densities.
      - Analyses of urban housing markets indicate that demand patterns are similar across cities in developing and industrial countries but that supply-side impediments vary widely - resulting in a range of ratios of housing prices to incomes.
        
        Similarly, the provision of public sector infrastructure provision varies widely across cities.
- - - - Political entity:
      - Functional relationships:
      - Physical form:
      - Identity and representation of the polycentric urban region:
  - - - ended central railroad monopolies as urban export nodes
      - ended horse drawn wagons as the major mode of transporting goods
    - - the deconcentration of economic activity undermined the commuting pattern "up the rent gradient" that characterised the monocentric model of people moving from the suburbs to the city centre
    - - The predominant urban activity is now the handling of information and the production of services
        
        constraints for these activities do not lie in the cost of moving goods from one place to another but are determined by the extent to which they need face to face contacts
        
        some argue that the spatial disintegration of work that is enable by info. tech. would further fragment the spatial distribution
      - choosing an optimal residential location now involves taking into account 2 people - this has given a strong boost to cross-commuting and undermined the notion of monocentricity
        
        commuting from home to work is no longer the sole reason commute - this trend has affected patterns of economic activity and of spatial mobility
- - - - Consequently, changes in the economic and spatial structure of urban regions are inevitably shaped by RE market dynamics .
  - - - Monocentric model yields a pattern of urban land use with service sector activities outbidding other users for central locations
  - - - freehold owner-occupiers
      - existing leases
    - - When the value of new property, net of (re)development costs exceeds the existing value of a site, appropriate new development will occur, supplying additional use and investment rights into their segment of the market
        
        This has a lack of institutional or behavioral content