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Zelfsturende Teams / Zelfsturing :silhouette: (Definities (Tjepkema (2003)…

- - - - A self-managing team, by definition, has authority and accountability for the first two functions-executing and managing the work - but within a structure and toward purposes set by others. Thus, a team's level of formal authority determines whether or not it falls within the present domain-that is, whether it is a "self-managing team." (p.559).
- - - - Motivatie
        
        Hackman (1987): onderdeel van Job Design / Job Characteristics model
        
        Langfred (2016): motivation, satisfaction and engagement (Argote & McGrath, 1993; Dwyer, Schwartz, & Fox, 1992; Vera, Martínez, Lorente, & Chambel, 2016)
      - Employee well-being
        
        Landfred (2016): As autonomy has been linked to positive individual outcomes such as employee well-being (Wu, Griffin, & Parker, 2015)
      - Lower turnover
        
        Langfred (2016): lower turnover (Annink & den Dulk, 2012)
    - - Negatief indien dit leidt tot lage monitoring, en daardoor lagere performance (Langfred, 2004).
      - Placing boundaries on the long-held assumption that autonomy is beneficial to motivation, attitudes, and performance (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Hackman & Oldham, 1976), researchers have proposed and found that autonomy has different effects under different levels of task interdependence. (Grant & Parker, 2009)
  - - - Nodig in kenniswerk want:
        
        In kenniswerk meer autonomie nodig door de inherent onverminderbare taak onzekerheid van de aard van het werk. Dit komt door: (p. 638).
        
        The first is the far looser coupling between process and outcomes in knowledge work (Woolley, 2009).
        
        The second source of uncertainty is multiple tasks and nested goals. (Langfred, 2016).
        
        Kenniswerk is equifinal. Het kan op verschillende manieren tot stand komen, minder vaste procedures dan fabriekswerk.
        
        Meer organisaties werken in teams: Since the 1970s, organizations have increasingly relied on teams to organize work (Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2005; Kozlowski & Bell, 2003). As the use of teams has grown, so has the adoption of various autonomy-based designs, such as autonomous work teams, self-managing teams, and self-designing teams (Haas, 2010; Langfred, 2007). Individual workers assigned to such teams often have to manage and juggle complex work arrangements, as their role in such teams can vary considerably.
    - - Wrzesniewski & Dutton (2001: 180) In this article we construe employees as "job crafters," and we use the term job crafting to capture the actions employees take to shape, mold, and redefine their jobs. Job crafters are individuals who actively:
        
        Task: compose both what their job is physically, by changing a job's task boundaries
        
        Cognitive: what their job is cognitively, by changing the way they think about the relationships among job tasks
        
        Relational: what their job is relationally, by changing the interactions and relationships they have with others at work.
  - - - Grote groeps-autonomie = zelfsturend team?
        
        Thus, the organizational granting of autonomy to a team does not necessarily mean that individuals will experience it in the same way (Langfred, 2016: 639)
      - Cordery (2010): meer groeps-autonomie leidt tot meer performance.
        also suggests that heightened team autonomy is a pre-condition for effective team performance on interdependent and unpredictable task sets (p. 256).
  - - - Taken bepalen mate vorm van structuren, ook welk type leiderschap nodig is.
- - - - 'verticale grens' tussen leiders en ZST's. Midden-managers verliezen mogelijk hun positie: 'Hoe een zelfsturend team sturen?'
      - Houding van werknemers. Sommigen willen meer autonomie, anderen niet. Daarnaast ontlenen sommigen identiteit aan hun werk: die verandert mogelijk door cross training .
      - Gebrek aan skills / abilities op gebouw van zowel techniek als sociale vaardigheden rondom managementtaken.
      - Heeft ZST voldoende input aan informatie, materialen en kennis om daadwerkelijk zelfsturend te zijn. (Law of requisite variety). Oftewel:
        If, on the other hand, the level of variety is high, management may enhance the organizational responsiveness by delegating responsibilities and control to self-organizing teams, which have local autonomy to deal with variety incustomer demand and work processes (Molleman, 1998).
        
        Hulpmiddelen nodig om teambeslissingen te maken en door te voeren (Tjepkema, 2003)
    - - The difficulties of fostering self-management teams - particularly in organizations with histories of individualistic, manager-directed work - have been well documented. These difficulties have been attributed to:
        
        deficits in the motivation and ability of managers to create the conditions that foster self-management (Goliembiewski 1995, Hut and Molleman 1998) #
        
        resistance from team members in taking on self-management (Balkema and Mollerman 1999, Wellins et al. 1991). #
  - - - The power to take action and make decisions about work and business performance.
        
        Information about processes, quality, customer feedback, buseiness results, competitor performance, and organizational changes.
        
        Rewards tied to performance results and devolopment of capability and contributions
        
        Training that enables employees to develop the knowledge required to contribute to organizational performance
        
        The material resources that permit employees to accomplish their work well.
    - - Encourage self-observation/self-evaluation so that the team can gather the information required to monitor and evaluate its performance
        
        Encourage self-goal setting so that the team sets performance goals
        
        Encourage self-reinforcement so that the team recognizes and reinforces good team performance
        
        Encourage self-criticism so that the team is self-critical and discourages poor team performance
        
        Encourage self-expectation so that the team has high expectations for group performance
        
        Encourage rehearsel so that the work group thinks through and practives an activity before actually performing the activity
    - - Task Variety: the task requires group members to use a variety of skills in carrying out their work
        
        Task Identity: it is a whole and identifiable piece of work, that is group members are involved with the tastk from the beginning to end and see the outcome of their efforts
        
        Task Significance: it has a significant impact on the lives of other people, whether inside of outside the organization
        
        Autonomy: group members have considerable autonomy, discretion, and independence in determing how the work will be performed
        
        Feedback: work on the group task generates regular, accurate feedback about how the group is performing. This feedback occurs in the process of doing the work.
      - Met autonomie, zullen medewerkers zich verantwoordelijk voelen (p.17). Sociotechnical systems theory (STS) argues that work groups should be designed with the contol over their boundaries, the autonomy, and feedback to control variances from goal attainment. This self-regulating capacity is hypothesized to lead to greater performance and employee satisfaction. (p. 16).
    - - Group composition
        a. Technical skills
        b. Interpersonal skills
        c. Size
        d. Stability
        
        Group Beliefs
        a. Well Crystallized Norms
        b. Group Self-Efficacy
        
        Group Process
        a. Coordination and Caring
        b. Sharing of Expertise
        c. Implementation of Innovations
- - - - Hoog vertrouwen en hoge zelfstandigheid kunnen leiden tot lage performance.
        P. 386: In self-managing teams, however, where team members are responsible for the monitoring, members may choose to not monitor one another when the level of trust is high. In such teams, social forces may make it difficult for individual teammembers to suggest the necessity of monitoring one another once a high level of trust is established.
    - - Organizational design theorists have long recognized that delegating autonomy to business units is risky because units that are able to make decisions without external input may over look or resist courses of action that are preferable to their organization as a whole (Galbraith, 1973; Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967).
      - Research on "groupthink" has suggested that a similar dynamic may impede the effectiveness of small groups of decision mak ers with high autonomy (Janis, 1982).
      - The status conveyed to a team by the endorsement of autonomy also encourages the "not invented-here" syndrome, characterized by unwillingness to adopt ideas from outside the team (Katz & Allen, 1982).
      - The resulting isolation has implications for both
        strategic and operational effectiveness: teams may miss opportunities to learn about options for serving their organization's strategic goals, or they may waste time replicating solutions that could have been more efficiently imported from outside. The consequences for new-product development tasks,
        for example, may be less creativity (Hargadon & Sutton, 1997) or slower time-to-market (Hansen, 1999). Because such risks of isolation reduce the benefits of independence, more autonomy does not necessarily result in better team performance.
    - - Attempts to create self-management teams have often resulted in poor performance, individualistic behavior, and avoidance of the decision making necessary for effective, cooperative teamwork (Cohen and Ledford 1994, Cordery et al. 1991, Cummings and Griggs 1977, Hackman 1998).
    - - Er bestaat de mogelijkheid dat er minder goede beslissingen worden genomen of teamleden het eigen belang voor het organisatiebelang stellen. Ook bestaat er in groepen dat conformity presures de overhand krijgen, waardoor een goed idee van de minderheid niet gehoord wordt. Een ander risico is dat medewerkers gaan free-riden oftewel lantefanteren en hun werk afschuiven naar anderen.
  - - - New approaches are required to deal with the increasing interdependence, complexity, and uncertainty in the environments of these organizations {U.S. modern organizationas} (Trist, 1977) in (Manz & Sims, 1987)
- - - - High-skill autonomous work (e.g. executives and professionals) typically requires university education and often postgraduate education; the task/authority environment allows significant discretion in decision-making.
      - Semiautonomous work (e.g. supervisors and secretaries) may be semi- or high-skilled, requiring either extensive job-specific, vocational and/or university training; the task/authority environment requires moder- ate levels of discretion, but still may be fairly standardized.
- - - - AWGs were most popular in Europe, especially Scandinavian countries with a strong history of industrial democ- ratization, although they also spread to the U.S. and beyond.