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Respiration (Types of respiratory organs (Fish gills (How Gills maximize …

- - - - Large surface area
      - Cilia moves water
      - Thin skin
      - Limitations : small animals only, no energy needing activities
    - - Amphibians
    - - Bornean flat-headed frog
      - Lungless Caecelian
  - - - Tracheal tubes (spiracles)
      - Air ---> tracheal tubes
        stop in fluid-filled tracheoles.
        (Fluid of tracheoles -body cells)
      - High metabolic rate
  - - - Thin cell / Tissue
      - Circulate water
      - Limitations : small animals only, no energy needing activities
  - - - Spiders, scorpions
        
        Hemolymph filled stakes of
        lamellae
        
        Air ---> cavities (exchange lamellae - heamolymph)
  - - - Features
        
        moist, thin
        
        Filaments contain rich
        capillary network
        
        (countercurrent exchange)
        
        Incraese gradient for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion
      - Limitation
        
        do not work on land
        
        lack support needed in less-buoyant air
        
        have large surface area exposed to dry air (gills need all respiratory surface be moist
    - - Gill slits perforate the pharynx &
        gills
      - Movement of jaw & operculum pumps oxygen-high water
    - - Thin gills
      - Feather-like
        arrangement
      - Water pumping across gills with
        buccal & opercular cavities
      - Counter-current system
    - - Example
        
        Neotenic salamander
      - Limitation
        
        must be in constant motion
        
        tissue delicate and unprotected
        
        relatively small body size
    - - supplimentary site for respiratory gas exchange
      - Air pass through by creating
        
        negative pressure inside chess cavity
        
        positive pressure inside mouth cavity
  - - - Transportation of gases
        
        using blood
      - Internal Respiration
        
        exchange oxygen and carbon between tissues and blood
      - External respiration
        
        exchange oxygen and carbon between lungs and blood
      - Cellular respiration
        
        utilisation of oxygen and carbon dioxide production
      - Pulmonary ventilation (or breathing)
        
        Inhale
        
        rib cage rises and the diaphragm contracts ----> increasing the size of the chest cavity
        
        negative pressure breathing
        
        Exhale
        
        rib cage lowers & the diaphragm relaxes -----> pressure in the chest cavity is greater than atmospheric pressure
    - - controlled by the medulla oblongata
        
        carbon dioxide rises(ph drops) ---> diaphragm contract ----> air enter lungs
      - carotid body in the carotid arteries
        
        respond to a drop in O2
    - - in alveolus
        
        feature
        
        big surface
        
        moist, very thin walls
        
        have capillaries
        
        gas diffuse from high to low concentration
      - oxygen diffuse into blood ----> oxygen is distributed to body cells by blood ---> carries CO2 back to lungs (alveolus)
    - - Reptiles
        
        simple sacs increase surface area
        
        absence of diaphragm
        
        inhalation and passive exhalation
        
        not efficient
      - Sea turtles
        
        Ventilate their lungs using muscles
        
        contraction and relax of abdominal, pelvic, pectorial muscle change pressure of the lungs
      - Amphibians
        
        connective tissues ridges increase surface area
      - Birds
        
        have air-sac system (aerodynamical valving)
        
        extremely efficient
        
        parabronchi and air sacs that allow unidirectional flow
        
        Fresh air ----> trachea ----> posterior air sacs -> prabronchi -> anterior air sacs -> trachea
      - Mammals
        
        lungs have enormous surface area
    - - Hyperpnea
        
        INC lung ventilation
      - Apnea
        
        absence of breathing
      - Hyperventilation (INC) & hypoventilation (DEC)
        
        changes rate of breathing
      - Dyspnea
        
        labored breathing
      - Eupnea
        
        normal breathing
      - Polypnea
        
        INC breathing without increase in breathing depth
- - - - altitude
      - free radicals/heavy metals
      - carbon monoxide
- - - - A increase
      - P increase
      - d decrease