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Problem Solving (What is a problem? (Duncker "when a living organism…

- - - - e.g. candle on wall problem: need to recognise that tack box can be used as something other than a tack box (to hold candle!)
      - "blocks" can be overcome
        
        elaboration (hint)
        
        relaxation of constraints (think outside the box)
        
        re-encoding (tack box)
- - - - re-encoding
- - - - Analogical problem solving
        
        James "men reason by analogy"
        
        Spearman "all intellectual acts involve analogical reasoning"
        
        Tumour and army example (we did this in the lecture!)
        
        previous knowledge of the army analogy: entering fortress via 4 different methods, can aid problem solving later in tumour problem! (need to attack tumour without damaging surrounding tissue)
        
        different types of solution (show whether schema of army was used for tumour)
        
        Convergence, Open passage or Surgery
        
        Gick
        
        0-50% when not hinted to use 1st for 2nd
        
        70%+ when hinted to use 1st analogy to aid 2nd
        
        Holyoak
        
        1 week later: 80%+ correct solutions in analogy condition
        
        if problems look alike they probably are alike: superficial features indicate deeper structural similarities Medin
        
        Keane: surface similarity of problems increased spontaneous transfer of methods:
        
        lab studies encourage surface similarity? When ptts created their own analogies they were more structurally similar than on the surface
    - - Duncker candle
        
        the "functional fixedness" = idea that the box is used to hold tacks and not candles
        
        if box empty at beginning of task then success increases as it can be seen as a container for any possible object
      - If we are well practiced in a certain strategy we may try to use it when it is inappropriate, hence hindering success
        
        Habituation effects: we become blind to the actual problem at hand and are led by a mechanical application of tried & tested methods
        
        beginners luck? perhaps it is not luck at all - perhaps more experienced people make more mistakes due to this?