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Impact of war, the political crises of October to November 1918, and the…

- - - - Proliferation of small parties: smaller parties gain representation (NOT in first-past-the-post principle) smaller parties (anti-republican) exploit parliamentary system gain publicity (parliamentary democracy did NOT create fragmented party system due to deep divisions German society/ lack national consensus
      - Coalition governments: proliferation small parties NONE larger parties gain majority in Reichstag (government command majority- all governments Weimar Republic were coalitions)
      - Proportional representation: designed ensure all shades political opinion represented Reichstag (parties allocated seats in proportion percentage votes received)
  - - - Free from political control in Second Empire
      - Leaders determined preserve independence in Weimar Republic
      - Officer corps army Second Empire allowed continue intact into new republic = army far from being politically neutral
      - Full force military power used against left wing revolts
      - Conspirators right supported by elements within army
      - General Hans von Seeckt appointed Commander in-Chief 1920 believed army owed loyalty not to Republic (temporary) BUT to timeless Reich true expression German nationhood
      - Believed army under his command- intervene politics when saw fit
    - - Senior civil servants (German Foreign Office) recruited from aristocracy
      - Top civil servants wield power- ministers in coalitions changing
      - Government administration left hands those anti-democratic in outlook
      - Civil servants given guarantee of ‘well-earned rights’/ freedom political opinion and expression BUT did not conflict duty loyalty to state
    - - Left-wing groups courts punished great severity
      - Right-wing conspirators treated with lenience
      - Penal code of Republic stipulated anyone attempting overthrow constitution force sentenced life imprisonment
      - Staunchly monarchists/ anti-democratic (bias in legal judgements)
      - Judges served Second Empire retain posts
      - Article 54: guarantee independence of judges