Mussolini
Rise to Power
1922 Emergence of M, is appointed by King (like H)
Forms a dictatorship
admired for bringing order
springboard for becoming a fascist dictatorship
long term weakness - liberals had ruled Italy badly, problems w/ unification from 1870, liberals had been complacent
nationalist dissatisfaction w/ outcome of WWI, had been a hard war for Italians --> social and economic unrest, great uncertainty, only 5 years after Russia revolution --> fear of socialism from pope and property-owning classes
was a constitutional monarchy but elite ruled, liberals dominated parliament, self-serving coalitions, bribery, corruption, social and economic problems not addressed, poor peasants felt alienated by govt. Church still disgruntled by Italy's unification
from 1900, liberals began to be challenged by the socialists who looked to the working classes, strong nationalist movement began to grow critical of the liberals, assertive FP needed, M watching all this. Liberals extended the vote but politics was unstable
WWI - liberals decided to join Allies in 1915, many socialists opposed the war, M was for it, thought would elevate Italy, fell out w/ socialists at this point, humiliating defeats blamed on govt., Prime Minister felt humiliated by terms of treaty at end of WWI, betrayal of Italy. Govt. seemed unpatriotic, M could learn to exploit all those dissatisfactions
Had been promises of land reform, economic growth and Great Power status instead debt, inflation --> massive discontent, can see why people wanted order in 1922
Catholics founded new party, Populari, popes had been saying no politics but were now worried about socialism. In 1921, the liberal leader made a deal w/ the very small fascist party. M began to emerge as the vital leader, essential to the Fascist grouping, not hesitating to use violence.
M said the future belongs to us, talented opportunist, brilliant self-publicist, unscrupulous in desire for power, despite his interest in socialism, he began to see that he needed the forces of property, encouraging followers to attack the socialists, leading industrialists saw M as someone who could restore order, police often turned a blind eye
played a patriot, a man of action (different from Liberals) but still negotiating w/ them while talking of a march on Rome, saving Italy from socialism, King could have acted here, but invited M to become PM (M had only 7% of vote, while H had 30%)
Who do you blame? Failure of will of King and Elite, K feared civil war, being replaced, worried army wouldn't be loyal to them, preferred M over socialists. Key figures persuaded themselves that M alone could restore order + end violence.
peasants set off for war w/ bad equipment, no colonies, less land than expected, debts, massive blow to self-esteem, liberal govt. weak and unpopular, 'mutilated peace'
Italians longed for new beginning, became divided between those who feared a revolution and those who thought M could prevent it
Socialism was atheistic, Church thought fascism would be good for Itay
For 2 years were coalitions w/ M, some politicians walked out, set up own coalition, M didn't allow them back
1925 political opposition and free trade unions banned, press was censored, elected local govt. replaced by appointed officials, new powers of arrest and detention, electorate reduced from 10 to 3 Million. By 1930s, il Duce was unstoppable
Why so little opposition to M?
Promised stability, new jobs, new pride in Italy
Fascist propaganda focused on strength + power of Party and leader, pics of M working in the fields
Consolidation of Power
Few expected M to last, had few detailed policies, strengthened his position by changing electoral position, Acerbo Law of 1923, part who gained the most votes had 2/3 seats in govt.
Combination of violence, police repression and electoral fraud allowed Fascists to win 64% of votes in 1923
OVRA was new secret police, other parties banned, elected councils replaced by appointed officials
M's Domestic Policies
Cult of Personality
Mussolini is always right, M sole ruler promoted in posters, papers and official statements
M came to believe the propaganda, his belief in his infallibility cut him off from reality --> little effective policy-making. Fascist Italy strong on style, weak on substance.
M did have real political skill, compromised w/ elites. controlled fascists who could have gone wayward
Economic Policy
M knew must provide a strong economy, had no specific programme by 1922 though. Talked of economic independence for Italy. Outlawed socialist and Catholic trade unions in 1925. In 1926 strikes outlawed.
1927, economy weakened, Unemployment trebled from 1926-8. 1929 was Great Depression, M used govt. intervention to bail out the great industrialists, would establish a Fascist Corporative State. "revolutionary way" of running an economy, would sort out disputed
Hoped I would supply all its own major needs (didn't --> failure), spoke of Third War