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The formation of states before 1945 (Introdução (To define a realm more…

- - - - Dilema de Segurança
- - - - Cidadania
      - Nacionalidade
- - - - Teoria do Contrato Social
        
        The idea of the citizen was developed prior to and during the French revolution.
        
        Cidadania (citizenship)
        
        But who were they? This was not a matter of debate. It was assumed rather than argued that citizens were to be the former subjects of the king.
        
        Birth and residence in the nation, rather than privilege mediated through the monarch, became the basis of equal rights
        
        legal equality that is supposed to provide the glue for society.
        
        Prior to this time (American and French Revolutions), peasants of eighteenth-century France, Germany, England, Spain, and other European dynastic territories identified themselves primarily as Christians. If there was any political nexus between the peasant and the king, queen, prince, or duke, it was primarily in the form of tax payment.
        
        The "nation" as a grass-roots phenomenon, then, is of very recent vintage in most parts of Europe
        
        Nationalism is a process, not an event or historical fact of a given time and location.
        
        Not the least of the sources of mass nationalism was war itself. It was chronicled by many during the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. These wars were instrumental in breaking down the dynastic regime's deliberate separation of the state, army, and society. The "nation in arms" concept could not have worked in practice without popular sentimental and patriotic mobilization. Military service, conscription, and wartime propaganda all helped develop a sense of national community where only localisms had prevailed previously
        
        Nationalism is a set of doctrines as well as expressions of sentiment and identity.
        
        In them, the state existed long before a sense of national community emerged. Yet, the idea that there are "natural" communities and that these should form the basis of the state emerged shortly after the French Revolution. Nationalism as an idea preceded it as a fact.
        
        Under the influence of Romanticism, [...] the idea of language as the basis of a "national" political community gained popularity. The "nation" is a community whose membership includes only those who communicate via the medium of a unique vernacular. If some do not speak the vernacular, they are "others" - virtual foreigners - who then have a special, and usually inferior, status. If state frontiers separate members of the language community, they are arbitrary and unnatural and must be changed. [...] the polity must coincide with the community since the community precedes the polity.
        
        The historical development of standardized vernaculars is a product of modern means of communication combined with the educational policies of the state. Fichte had it wrong: in most of Europe, states created nations and standardized vernaculars, not the reverse.
        
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        In contract theory the state is the creation of individual will, multiplied by the numbers making up the community or commonwealth. There is no reference to groups, associations, or other collectivities based on interest, language, culture, or other attributes
        
        The individualism of contract theory translates to the concept of the citizen. The community, then, is defined in terms of citizenship within a territorially bounded realm. Once attained, citizenship provides equal rights and responsibilities for individuals.
- - - - In 1919 there were basically two solutions to the problems not solved by the principle of self-determination. The first was to grant all citizens in the new country equal rights regardless of language, ethnicity, religion, and other attributes. The second solution was to guarantee minority rights under international supervision.
      - Virtually all of the states created in 1919 underline John Breuilly's contention that nationalism is all about access to resources, politics, equality, and rewards and much less about "identity," language, or ethnicity. A citizen is a constant; a national is a variable.