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national unity (overview (approaches to cr8 national unity (NERD LIM)…

- - - - geographical (highlands-lowlands; rural-urban)
      - economical (traditional-modern sectors)
      - weatlh (rich-poor)
      - political (communist-socialist-capitalist)
      - ÷sions usually amongst >1 line/overlapping
    - - indigenous ethnic minority grps usually situated in highlands therefore involved in traditional, low-paying economic activities
      - during CW, communist parties driven to highlands often found support among politically & economically marginalised minorities
      - majority ethic grps tended to live in lowlands & engaged in more modern sectors of economy, therefore wealthier
      - many migrant/alien minorities defined by more dominant role in economy vis–à–vis(in relation to/compared with) indigenous minority
  - - - absence of political ÷sions along ethnic lines
      - lack of conflicts
        
        absence of ethnic conflict to gauge social stability
        
        extent/concentration/time period of ethnic conflict?
  - - - imposing on ethnic minorities often caused ethnic separatist movement outbreaks
      - assimilative nature of these attempts to ensure cultural uniformity implied values of minorities were inferior & only by conforming to sth "advanced" would they be accepted into the st8
      - success usually limited, can even undermine country's unity by causing hostility of minority grps bc latter perceive their values & cultural sovereignty as being threatened
    - - multiculturalism policies can foster gr8r unity on basis of inclusivity
      - direct contrast to policies promoting dominant culture
      - focus on diversity & accordance of = status to different communities fostered respect for each ethnic grp; successfully reduced distinction & highlighted areas of commonalities
    - - used in hopes that st8-endorsed religion would provide glue to hold ppl tgt
      - effectively united majority of population sharing common religion yet simultaneously divisive bc alienated minorities subscribing to different religions
    - - represent n8ion & ppl
      - mpt role - capture masses' imagination
      - materialise & concretise idea of a n8ion
      - grps overlook differences; see themselves belonging to n8ion
    - - common language often adopted as national language to foster NU & unite heterogeneous population
      - potent force as a medium conveying national loyalties
      - contributed to "cultural eqlty" & helped reinforce racial/ethnic harmony, facilitating cr8ion of sense of NU in some countries
    - - govts frequently use in search of emotional cement to consolid8 ppl's will & inculc8 sense of NU
      - not always sustainable bc often had to give way to more pragmatic concerns (economic development)
    - - provision overcame rural-urban majority-minority ÷sions by allowing equal opportunities for social mobility (meritocracy) & opportunities for economic progress
      - major tool fostering cohesiveness
      - cr8 common environment for different grps to socialise & integrate (imbuing students w national values) & hence sense of NU & identity
  - - - aimed to absorb minorities to becoming part of the country yet usually achieved reverse effect, highlighting distinction amongst minorities, impeding efforts towards NU (example: transmigration)
      - govts' rationale: build NU by mixing ethnic grps
      - however provoked unrest in recipient communities amidst discrimination in favour of migrants (from majority ethnic grp) wrt land rights, employment & local custom erosion
    - - effectively turned ethnic minorities into 2nd-class citizens
      - clear demarcation govt drew - giving different treatment to majority & minorities reinforced their differences - major impediment to building NU
      - usually in conjunction w ethnic hegemony (st8 ruled by ethnic majority grp & minorities r controlled)
      - reinforced resentment; ethnic conflicts & separatism
    - - extension to minorities mpt - fostered belonging to newly-established n8ion
      - autonomous status signalled govt recognition of minority rights, adopting inclusive approach > exclusive one
      - seen by minorities as political recognition acts towards them & their differences, could help erode resentment, contributing to NU
- - - - didn't appeal to SGrean imagination bc general perception initiative had clear govt agenda seeking to disguise obedience to regime as loyalty to community
      - values too general & inclusive such that there wasn't anyth distinctively SGrean about 'em
      - failure reflects continuing challenge of formulating set national values accepted by all SGreans regardless of race & religion
- - - - primarily attributed to Pancasila's political use: counter-balance against Islamic fundamentalists & parties under Sukarno & Suharto's leadership
    - - some Islamic organisations resisted subscribing to national symbols such as national pledge bc nationalism advocated by nationalists was secular (not connected w religious/spiritual matters), contrasting to their want of an Islamic st8
  - - - perceptions reinforced w Jakarta's usage of military force to suppress demands for independence
    - - Irian Jaya - 1969 "Act of Free Choice": legitimise incorporation of this territory into Indonesia, manipulation by Jakarta - completely violated principle of voluntary unity
      - Aceh - 1980s intensive military operations against GAM separatist struggle: completely broke principle of voluntary unity
    - - perpatuation due to govt failure to address economic grievances of minorities in Outer Islands (suffered from escalated poverty instead of getting fair share of profits from extraction of natural resources in their territories)
- - - - ppl continued identifying socially & politically w respective ethnic grps, particularly in minority areas
        
        1990 general elections - National League for Democracy (NLD) dominated Burman votes, local pro-democracy parties captured most remaining seats based on ethnicity
    - - included communists (Red & White Flags) & ethnic minorities (examples: Shan St8 Army & Karen Liberation Army). ^ conflicts can be linked to Ne win's 1962 coup d'état (violent overthrow of existing government by smol group) & 1947 Constitution suspension
        
        ethnic minorities' viewpoint: abolished legal instrument binding their homelands to Union of Burma
- - - - ethno-regional grps seeing themselves as Thai citizens felt marginalised by st8, felt didn't receive same benefits in power & resources as compared to central Thai ppl
        
        example: prohibited from teaching their local languages & histories in schs bc their cultural practices not deemed as standard Thai culture by Bangkok central govt
      - attempts @ developing highlands but areas continued remain economically marginalised; economic grievances made regions vulnerable to communist influence (another marginalised grp)
        
        Communist Party of Thailand therefore able build popular support in N & NE regions in 1970s & 1980s, ÷ing country further along political affiliations (in addition to ethnic, cultural & economic lines)
    - - 1950s & 1960s marled by rise of ethno-regionalism in NE Thailand, 1970s saw Pattani Malay minorities insurrection (PULO aka Pattani United Liberation Organisation)
        
        Malay-Muslim population (concentrated in S provinces of Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala & Songkhla) continued challenging Thai identity's existence religiousl, ethnically & thru using old Malay writing syst (Jawi language), remaining resistant to Thai govt's attempts to integr8 them into st8
      - however, ethnic Malays in Satun province less inclined towards separatism
        
        more proficient in Thai compared to Malays from other st8s. Samsams (mixed Thai & Malay ancestry, form bulk of Satun's population) generally adherents of Islam but culturally Thai altho Malay influences r co-dominant
    - - bc assimilative policies & Chi widespread adoption of Thai Buddhist practices; become 'Thai' to gr8r extent than other minorities