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Medical Ethics: Medical Engineering (Stem Cell research/therapy (Adult…

- - - - Positives
        
        ‘Pharming’ - animals bred to produce drugs or vaccines for humans e.g. Tracey the Sheep was genetically bred to produce AAT - a substance used in the treatment of cystic fibrosis and emphysema (lung disease). At the moment - very expensive. The hope is that Tracey and her offspring may make treatment more readily available/at lower cost. Providing that animals do not suffer, there are fre ethical objections with genetic engineering of animals to relieve human suffering. Christianity has traditionally taught that animals were created for the benefit of human beings - God gave humans ‘dominion’ (power) over them.
        
        Natural Law - one of the purposes is to preserve human life. Would be seen as the most loving thing (Situation Ethics) to save lives.
        
        Xenotransplants - using pig hearts to replace human defective valves has become routine. This is good as demand for transplant organs exceeds the supply by humans. Xenotransplantation could save many lives as they can be grown quickly, supplies are plentiful and the donor animal can be genetically engineered to suit the recipient. Natural Law - one of the purposes is to preserve human life. Would be seen as the most loving thing (Situation Ethics) to save lives.
        
        Agriculture - leaner meat, better yield, greater resistance to disease. Could reduce starvation/hunger.
        Would be seen as the most loving thing (Situation Ethics) to save lives.
        
        Cloning - for 'pharming' (animals bred to produce drugs or vaccines for humans), for xenotransplants (using pig hearts to replace human defective valves has become routine.) for agriculture (leaner meat, better yield, greater resistance to disease.) to create a copy of an existing/dead plant to recreate animals threatened with extinction.
      - Negatives
        
        There are serious risks in transplanting organs from higher primates - dangers of disease/virus transmission = potentially devastating consequences.
        
        Little Ethical objection to genetic engineering for agriculture ,unless breeding results become unbalanced and animals are in distress e.g. if pigs are bred so they carry so much weight their legs can’t support them.
        
        With agriculture, rich countries will always benefit first
        
        Cloning is unnatural and attacks God’s role as creator.
        
        It involves the use of embryos (all potential lives) - low levels of success. It took scientists 227 attempts before they got the first healthy cloned lamb - Dolly in Scotland in 1996.
        
        Cloned animals often produce large off-spring which can damage/kill surrogate mother.
        
        Cloned animals often suffer from mental deficiencies respiratory problems and early arthritis because they are from the cells of the original so if the animal they cloned was 10 then the cloned animal is born with a ten year old's body.
        
        Premature ageing also common, along with all it’s problems.
        
        There are fears that reproductive cloning of animals will reduce the natural variety found through sexual reproduction - affecting the balance of nature.
    - - Positives
        
        To increase yields - could be the answer to starvation and world hunger,
        
        Natural Law - one of the purposes is to preserve human life.
        
        Would be seen as the most loving thing (situation Ethics) to save lives. - Moor food = more people fed.
        
        To increase resistance to diseases and pests.
        
        To make some plants immune to certain pesticides and herbicides (so aren’t affected when farmers kill weeds)
      - Negatives
        
        As yet, the effects of Gm food are unknown - environmental health etc. At present, there is no indication that GM food does any harm to the human digestive system but there are dangers that may be present of which we are presently unaware.
        
        Difficult to take a utilitarian approach as consequences are unknown.
        
        It could also cause ‘genetic pollution’ to insects.
        
        It costs millions to develop GM crops, so rich countries will benefit most - not poor.
        
        Should GM food be labelled?
        
        How far should we try to ‘play God’? Should we leave nature alone?
  - - - Negatives
        
        It’s unnatural - doctors are trying to play God.
        
        Difficult to take a utilitarian approach as the consequences are unknown. Unknown risks to individuals.
      - Positive
        
        Very few concerns
        
        Natural law - one of the primary precepts is to preserve life.
        
        Situation Ethics - Seen as the most loving thing to save lives.
      - Modifying the genes of a particular person without affecting the next generation. Can be used for negative therapy e.g. treating defective bone marrow.
    - - Positive therapy - used to enhance/improve human qualities. Could potentially be used to create ‘designer’ babies.
        
        Positives
        
        Surely everyone wants best for their children
        
        It increases chances of a better life (Gattaco)
        
        Negatives
        
        It’s unnecessary - not worth risk
        
        It’s unnatural - trying to play God.
        
        It would reduce variety/diversity of humanity. Everyone is created by - God and is unique. Even defects are intended by God
        
        It would reduce variety/diversity of humanity. Everyone is created by - God and is unique. Even defects are intended by God.
        
        What is a defect? Where do you draw the line? How would you decide which defects should be eliminated? Homosexuality?
        
        High expectations - how would people deal with the burden of perfection? (In Gottaca jerome commits suicide because of this).
        
        Many lead to a world of eugenics (‘perfect’ people) and lead to discrimination of people who are not GM.
        
        Would only be available to wealthy families - wider gap between rich and poor. Biologist Lee Silver - a new alignment of classes - ‘the naturals’ and the ‘GenRich’.
      - Negative Therapy - to cure genetic/therapy - to cure genetic/hereditary e.g. Down’s syndrome, cystic fibrosis, diabetes.
        
        Negatives
        
        It’s unnatural - doctors are trying to play God.
        
        Would affect a large number of future generation - any mistakes could be disastrous.
        
        Difficult to take a utilitarian approach as consequences are unknown.
        
        Positives
        
        Natural Law - one of the primary precepts is to preserve life.
        
        Situation Ethics - seen as the most loving thing to save lives.
      - Making changes to reproductive cells that will affect future generations.
- - - - A lot less controversial than the use of embryonic stem cells as no embryos are destroyed.
        
        Lives will be saved
        
        Natural Law - one of the primary precepts is to preserve life.
        
        Situation Ethics - seen as the most loving thing to save lives.
    - - It’s unnatural - trying to play God.
        
        Risks or rejection or uncontrolled cells becoming tumours.
        
        Difficult to take a utilitarian approach - consequences are unknown.
  - - - Lives could be saved
        
        Natural Law - one of the primary precepts is to preserve life.
        
        Situation Ethics - seen as the most loving thing to save lives.
        
        Some people argue that embryos are not equivalent to human life - life begins at a later stage in pregnancy.
        
        Most embryos are lost naturally/down to chance then proposed to be used for embryonic stem cell research.
    - - It’s unnatural - doctors are trying to play God. The process involves destruction of the pre-embryos once the stem cells have been removed.
        
        Some people class the embryo as a person (life begins at conception) - destruction is murder!
        
        If embryos are lives, Kant would be against using embryonic stem cells as humans should never e used as a means to an end.
- - - - It’s unnatural - doctors are trying to play God.
        
        The process of donating eggs is painful and potentially dangerous. Eggs that are not used will be disposed of.
        
        The process involves the destruction of the pre-embryo once the stem cells have been removed.
        
        Some people class the embryo as a person - destruction is murder!
    - - No chance of rejection of transplant by donor.
        
        Organs/tissue would be brand new.
        
        Lives will be saved.
        
        Natural Law - one of the primary precepts is to preserve life.
        
        Situation Ethics - seen as the most loving thing to save lives.
  - - - A human clone could provide exact matches for blood transfusions, cancer treatment, organ transplants.
        
        It could help infertile couples to have a genetically related to one of them - the child could be a clone of one of the parents.
        
        It could help lesbian/gay couples to have a child - e.g. the child’s DNA could come from both it’s parents.
        
        It could be used to produce a clone of an ill/dead child.
        
        It could be used to replicate extraordinary human beings - Einstein, Martin Luther King.
    - - It’s unnatural - trying to play God.
        
        Everyone is created by God and is unique.
        
        Humans cloning turns reproduction into manufacturing. Reproduction that does not involve sex is unnatural.
        
        Health risks: cloning techniques are very risky. Many attempts at animal cloning produced disfigurements/abnormalities. The same could happen with the first cloned humans.
        
        Emotional and psychological risks: cloning may lead to devastating problems and emotional difficulties; for example, from a child cloned from a dead sibling. The ‘replacement’ child might suffer feelings of infertility about being born purely to take the place of a dead sibling.
        
        Low levels of success: There is currently only between 0.4 and 6% success rate with animal cloning - creating many ‘wasted’ embryos.
        Identity issues - is the person an individual?