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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PART 2 (:<3:T6: ATTITUDES AND ATTITUDE CHANGES (…

- - - - 2. AFFECTIVELY BASED ATTITUDE: EMOTIONS
        are based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs. Their function may be value-expressive.
        :!:They are generally based on values not logical/rational thinking
        :!!:affectively based attitudes can be result of conditioning
        
        CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
        is learning by association (a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly experienced along with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
        
        OPERANT CONDITIONING
        is the case whereby behavioUrs that people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by positive reinforcement or punishment
      - 3.BEHAVIOURALLY BASED ATTITUDES
        Are based on observations of how one behaves toward an object.
        
        BEM'S SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY
        under certain circumstances, people do not know
        how they feel until they see how they behave.
        this only occurs when their initial attitude it weak or ambiguous or
        they can cannot identify any other reason for their attitude.
      - COGNTIVELY BASED ATTITUDE:P BELIEFS
        based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of the attitude object; their function is “object appraisal,” meaning that people classify objects according to the rewards or punishments they provide.
        
        based on my evaluation of the objects plus or minus, do I want anything to do with it?
    - - IMPLICIT ATTITUDE
        are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times,
        unconscious evaluations.
      - EXPLICIT ATTITUDE
        are ones we consciously endorse
        and can easily report
  - - - COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
        Attitudes may change due to the cognitive dissonance resulting from behaviour that appears to have insufficient internal justification; changing the attitude to correspond with the behaviour provides an internal justification.
        
        INTERNAL OVER EXTERNAL JUSTIFICATION
        in order to change someone's behaviour, you
        must invoke internal justification. If you give them too
        much external justification; paying them or asking a favour,
        the change will be temporary
    - - CARL HOVLAND: YALE ATTITUDE CHANGE APPROACH
        which examines the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitude in response to a persuasive message and which focuses on:
        
        who (the source of the communication) said
        
        what (the communication itself)
        
        to whom (the audience) (
        
        ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL
        Petty and Cacioppo's model
        Identifieid two ways attitudes can change:
        
        Centrally-a person needs to be motiviated
        and have the ability to pay attention to the argument
        
        2.periphally- people are swayed by service characteristics
        because they do not pay attention
        
        :red_flag:MOTIVATION AND ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION
        the individuals motivation and ability to pay attention impact on their ability to change their attitude
        
        PERPHERAL ROUTES TO PERSUASION
        is the case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues or surface characteristics
        eg who gave the speech, where they attractive/credible
        
        CENTRAL ROUTE TO PERSUASION
        is the case whereby people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments; this occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication.
        
        Personal relevance
        the ability to chang attitudes is also
        effected by the personal relevance
    - - HEURISITC-SYSTEMATIC PERSUASION MODEL
        Chaiken's Mode;
        states that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change;
        
        people either systematically process the merits of the arguments, or
        
        they use mental shortcuts (heuristics).
      - FEAR ARROUSING COMMUNICATION
        are persuasive messages that attempt to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears. They are most effective if they induce a moderate amount of fear and if people believe that listening to the message will provide them with actions they can take to reduce this fear
        
        Example: Asylum seeker topic in Australia
        politicians use fear to push political agenda through:
        queue jumping, liars.
        
        Example: images now on smoking
        packets
  - - - MCQUIRE (1964): TOOTHBRUSH ARGUMENT
        if people are given contradictory small information regarding a belief they hold, when a strong argument is presented they are able to critically evaluate if the strong argument is valid or not.
        People who are presented with strong arguments that have no
        prior knowledge are more susceptible to attitude change.
        You don't know, what you don't know so therefore you accept what you are being told
    - - PENNERBARKER & SANDERS (1976): DO NOT GRAFFATI
        study found that when a sign was placed on a toilet door stating
        do not to graffiti over a sign saying please do not....more graffiti was found on the authoritative sign.
  - - - Specific attitudes
        holds that only specific attitudes toward
        the behaviour in question can be expected
        to predict that behaviour
      - Subjective norms
        Peoples beliefs about how those they care about will
        view the behaviour in question.
        asking people about their subjective norms increases
        the ability to predict planned, deliberate behaviours
      - perceived behavioural control
        an individuals belief in their ability to perform
        a behaviour can impact on ease to perform. This is
        because they are more likely to form strong intention
- - - - SHERIF (1936): AUTOKINETIC EFFECT
        • When people were put in groups to make their estimates, over several trials, the differing estimates of the people converged (Figure 8.1).
        • This conformity was apparently due to informational social influence, because it resulted in private acceptance of the group norm out of genuine belief in their correctness (rather than public compliance, or a change in behaviour without a change in belief): subjects in variations of the study maintained their adherence to the group norm in private and up to a year later
        
        PRIVATE ACCEPTANCE
        conforming to peoples behaviour out of
        a genuine belief that what they at saying is
        right.
        
        PUBLIC COMPLIANCE
        conforming publically without necessarily believing
        what the group is saying or doing
        
        IMPORTANCT OF BEING ACCURATE
        the importance placed on being accurate
        during the task significantly impacts on
        informal social influence
        
        BARON, VANDELLO & BRUNSMAN (1996): EYE WITNESS TASK
        partitpants were asked to identify a person in a line up from a picture they had been shown. partitpants than discussed the identification with other parties.
        Baron et al found that participants were more influenced (in this case by informational social influence) by the confederate’s answers when the task was more important
      - NOLAN (2000): ELECTRCITIY SAVING
        participants who were given messages of neighbours
        participating in saving electricity behaviours were
        significantly more likely to maintain electricity behaviours
        than other groups
      - CONTAGION
        the rapid spread of emotions or behaviour
        through a crowd. when a crowd is presented with an
        ambiguous situations, we will turn to each other to seek
        information on how to behave.
        
        MASS PSYCHOGENIC ILLNESS
        the occurance of physical symptoms on a group of people with no known physical causes
      - CONFORMING TO INFORMATION SOCIAL INFLUENCE
        
        AMBIGIOUS SITUATIONS
        When you do not know how to respond you will
        turn to people around you as sources of information.
        the more uncertaintiy, the more likely you are to rely
        on others for cues on how to behave.
        
        CRISIS SITUATIONS
        situations that require immediate action due to chaos and
        do not allow for critical analyse, will see people
        looking at how the people around them are responding
        
        EXPERTS KNOW BEST
    - - CONFORMING TO NORMATIVE
        SOCIAL
        INFLUNECE
        
        CONFORMITY AND SOCIAL APPROVAL
        
        SOLOMON ASCH (1956): LINE JUDGEMENT STUDIES
        Was conducted in response to Sherifs autokintec experiment.
        Partitpants were asked to match a line to 3 lines of different lengths in a group setting. 76% of participants conformed with the incorrect answer, as a result o not wanting to feel different or foolish.
        major result: The Asch experiment is especially surprising since people were concerned about looking foolish in front of complete strangers, and there were no tangible risks or punishments for failing to conform.
        
        PUBLIC COMPLIANCE
        conformity as a result of normative
        social influence results in public compliance.
        public compliance through normative SI, does not
        necessarily result in private acceptance
        
        BERNS (2005): FRMI SCANS FOR CONFORMITY
        Berns showed using fMRI scans that brain activity occurs in the
        amygdala and negative emotions area when we have to verbally
        disagree with a group. We physical experience pain at the thought of not conforming to the groups beliefs, despite knowing the answers are incorrect.
        
        RESISTING NORMATIVE CONFORMITY
        when someone goes against the group, initially group members
        will attempt to explore where they ae coming from, communication will increase to try and persuade them. If this fails, the group will begin to reject the person . they will ostracise this person, the passively punish them for holding their views.
        
        SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND BODY IMAGE
        
        WOMENS BODY IMAGE
        A more sinister form of normative social influence is women’s attempts to conform to cultural definitions of an attractive body, where the current fashion is to be extremely thin.
        
        ANDERSON (1992): FOOD RELIABILITY AND IDEAL BODY WEIGHT
        Anderson identified by examining food reliability and ideal cultural body imaged in 54 countries. Anderson found that if food reliability was unreliable, heavy body's were deemed desirable.
        if food availability was reliable, slender bodies were more desirable.
        
        EATING DISORDERS AND DIETING
        Women learn what standard is appropriate through informational social influence, but normative social influence helps explain their attempts to create the desired body through dieting and eating disorders.
        
        MEN'S BODY IMAGE
        in more recent times, the impacts of nomrative
        body image pressures is beginning to appear in men.
        very little research has been done one this
        
        WHEN TO CONFORM?
        
        BIBB LATANE'S: SOCIAL IMPACT THEORY
        suggests that conforming to normative pressures depends on:
        
        the strength (personal importance),
        
        immediacy (physical proximity),
        3.number of other people in a group.
        
        According to the theory, conformity will increase directly with the amount of strength and immediacy; but that increases in numbers will show diminishing returns
        
        WHEN GROUP SIZE IMPACTS ON CONFORMITY
        
        1. Group size
        having a group of 3 or 4 has more impact
        then a group of 53.
        
        2. group importance
        the relationships in the group
        significantly impact on the influence of conformity. conformity
        will be stronger in group of close friends than strangers
        
        3. group unamity
        when more tan one person holds a beliefs it is easy to
        convince others to conform. If you are the only person who
        holds thief belief you will have difficulty conforming people
        
        4. Collective vs individualistic groups
        if their is a common group identity, people are more
        likely to conform with the group identity not what the group they
        situated in wants.
        eg more likely to conform with fellow psych majors over policing students
    - - INJUNCTIVE NORMS
        are people’s perception of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others.
        
        what is right and what is wrong?
      - DESCRIPTIVE NORMS
        are people’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved of or disapproved of by others
        
        what is helpful and what is not despite
        right or wrong norms?
        
        RENO, CIALDINI: LITTERING EXPERIMENT
        The researchers concluded that injunctive norms are more powerful than descriptive norms in producing desired behavior. They also noted that norms are always present, but not always salient; some aspect of the situation (in this case, the confederate’s behavior) needs to draw people’s attention to the norm so that they think about it. Thus, information that communicates injunctive social norms—what society approves and disapproves of—needs to be present to create positive behavior change
      - BOOMERANG EFFECT
        sometimes providing information around an issues
        canback fire and increase negative behaviour.
    - - STANLEY MILGRIM (1963, 1974,1976): OBEDIENCE LEVELS TO AUTHORITIES
        Participants believed they were in a study on the effects of punishment on learning; they were assigned the role of the teacher and their partner (actually a confederate of the experiment) was assigned the role of the learner.
        The teacher was assigned to punish the learner for every mistake in a paired associate’s task by delivering an electric shock. Each mistake is to receive a progressively higher level of shock. The learner protests, but the experimenter insists that the experiment must continue (Figure 8.8).
        Milgram found that 62.5% of the participants gave the full 450 mv “Danger XXX” shock, and that 80% continued past the learner’s announcement that he had a heart condition and refused further participation.
      - NORMATIVE INFLUENCE
        It is difficult for people to resist when the
        norm is being perpetrated by an authority figure.
        when there are more people and oneagrees with your
        protest you are more likely to not conform under normative
        social infleunce
      - INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE
        if the stuational is ambiguous, we will looke towards
        other people as a clue on how to act. we assume the
        expert knows best
- - - - Less accountability as individuals feel
        they wont be singled out
      - increases obedience to group norms.
        depending on the norms of the group
        positive or negative behaviour can
        be displayed
  - - - TRANSACTIVE MEMORY
        a combined memory of two people that
        is more efficient than the memory of
        either individual
    - - GROUP THINK
        occurs when maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity becomes more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner.
        
        ANTECEDENTS OF GROUPTHINK
        
        Highly Cohesive group
        
        Group Isolation
        
        directive leader
        
        high stress
        
        poor decision making procedures
        
        SYMPTOMS OF GROUPTHINK
        
        illusion of invulnerability
        
        belief in moral cooretness of group
        
        stereotypes view of outgroup
        
        self-censorship
        
        conformity pressure
        
        illusion of unanimity
        
        mind guard
        
        DEFECTIVE DECISION MAKING
  - - - REJECTION = PAIN
        further research has showed using MRIs
        that when a person feels rejected the pain
        centre in the brain light up