Chapter 2

When something that has 'poly' in front of it, what does it mean? Outline an example of a 'poly' in chapter 2. JLB Poly means 'multiple ' EG. polypeptides= multiple peptides

What are the sub units of polymers? What are the three components? K.T

What is an amino acid? What is an amino acid comprised of?Hao Bui

What are the two types of nucleic acids?

What are the three components of a monomer that make up DNA? D.S Negatively charged phosphate group, pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base: Could be G, T, A or C

What are the three main types of RNA? What is the function of each and where can they be found?SonLe

DNA is said to have a double helix. Why is this? Why is it a helical shape? K.T

What are complementary base pairs? Provide two examples and when/ why there is variences. BIANCAAAAAAAAAAA

What is a peptide? What is a polypeptide chain?
C.N

What are two differences between DNA and RNA? K.B

What are 'introns' and 'exons'? What is the purpose for both on a strand of genetic information? DZ

What does anti-parallel mean? It is parallel but moving in opposite directions. One end is called the 3 prime and the others is called the 5 prime.

Define the term 'gene'. Where can genes be found and what is their function? - BIANCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

What is gene sequencing? Why is it used and how has it been helpful? AD

What are some of the common types of protiens found/ produced by polypeptides? DZ

What is a 'triplet code'

What are the correct terms for 'start' and 'stop' when replicating DNA? JLB Correct term for start is TAC start building a protein,commencing with the amino acids and correct term for stop is ACT

What are the five elements that all protiens contain? What is the acronym for these

How many naturally occuring amino acids exhist? How many does the human body produce? How does an individual gain the rest?SonLe
There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids.
The Human body capable of producing only 11 where as the remaining 9 comes from diet/food

What are the two main components that amino acids are comprised of? Jordan heng

What are peptide and dipeptide bonds? When are they used? K.B

What is a polypeptide chain? Jane

What is the difference between a primary and secondary shape and structure and proteins? Why are they necessary? KN

What does 'TEACHERS' stand for? What are they? -Ling

What is a proteome? Proteome is the entire complement of protein that can be expressed by a cell, tissues or organism. Proteome may also be used to see how well the body responds to a treatment for a disease

What is Transcription? Where does it take place? What are the processes? What type of RNA is present? - Ling

What happens between transcription dd \translaion?j.s
Transcription:
The is the first step in gene expression and is a genetic copying process which uses an enzyme RNA polymerase and then converts a segment of DNA to messanger RNA (occurs in nucleus). Post-transcription modification is where pre-mRNA (free flowing nitrogenous bases is changed to mRNA (nitrogenous bases combined). mRNA leaves the nucleus to go to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Translation:
This process occurs after transcription and is a process of 'decoding' genetic instructions to convert those instructions into a polypeptide chain (protein) which is done in a ribosome .

How does translation occur? What types of RNA are needed and what are their functions?HaoBui

Does an entire chromosome get copied at once? V.L

What is the enzyme that reads and copies a single strand of DNA? K.N

What is a codon? what is an anticodon? Where is an anitcodon found? AD

What is the end product of translation?

What is at the end of a tRNA molecule? D.S A specific amino acid(building blocks of protein) that complements the triplet codon on the mRNA

The two types of Nucleic Acids are:
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
and RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
CK

CHOEUNG

T ransport proteins that carry other molecules
E nzymes which catalyse chemical reactions in the body
A ntibodies which are involved in the defence against disease and viruses.
C ontractile proteins which are involves in inducing movement of the body.
H ormones that regulate body activity.
E xported proteins
R eceptors that respond to stimuli.
S tructural proteins that provide support to various components of the body

B.N

BN

Three nucleotides in a row

The enzyme RNA polymerase reads and copies DNA into mRNA. While doing this, it replaces the thymine with uracil and replicates in the 5' to 3' direction. When the enzyme bonds to DNA, it starts to unwind the double helix structure .

K.J.B

- mRNA or Messenger RNA: Carries encoded genetic information that had been transcribed from DNA in the nucleus in the form of complementary base pairs (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Uracil) of the DNA template strand .
Once it reaches a ribosome the coded information will be decoded to different aminoacids to form a polypeptide.
- tRNA or Transfer RNA: Carries amino acids to ribosomes where they are used to construct proteins.It also assists in the process of translation where an anit-codon is attached to it.
- rRNA or Ribosome RNA: Work with ribosomal protein to increasing rate of reaction of amino acids into polypeptides. It contributes to the structure of the ribosome itself and contribute NO genetic information.

K.J.B

The five elements that all proteins contain are Sulfur, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon and Hydrogen

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Yes, an entire chromosome gets copied at once during a process known as transcription, this process is characterised the copying of the genetic
instructions present in DNA to messenger RNA.


•an mRNA is copied and travels on its own carrying the encoded information to the cytoplasm. Polymerase is the enzyme that is doing the copying.


•when a gene becomes active, it first makes a movable copy of the coded instruction that it contains

Polypeptide (multiple amino acid chains) - is a macro-molecule (large molecule) built of amino acids, sub-units and linked by peptide bonds (amino acid bonds) to form a single chain.

A codon is a sequence of three bases within an mRNA molecule. They contain the information to add an amino acid on to a protein chain. The codon with the base AUG is a start instruction to begin building a protein chain.

A chain of many peptides (proteins)

The Acronym for these is SONCH

1 peptide is made up of amino acids

Haemoglobin, keratin, elastin, and collagen

Transciption is a biological process where DNA is decoded and copied (transcribed). It takes place in the nucleus where a copy of genetic material is encoded into a strand of RNA, in particular messenger RNA (mRNA).

Amino Acid is a biomolecule that makes up protein. It is contains an NH2(amino group) a carboxyl group (COOH) and an R group that create different function to proteins.

DNA is said to have a double helix because due to the two strands of the complementary bases held together by hydrogen bonds, with a negatively charged phosphate group at the end. Each complementary bases are of different lengths, so when it connect informs a antiparallel helical shape. If a strand begins with a '3', it will end with a '5'. If you are wondering what is a '3' of a '5', it is found on the pentose sugar.

A polymer is made up of monomers and monomers are made out of a pentose sugar part, a negatively charged phosphate part and a nitrogenous base. In each nucleotide, the sugar and phosphate part is the same. There are four different types of nitrogenous base, adenine(A), thymine(T), guanine(G) and cytosine(C).

Each DNA molecule contains two chains of nucleotides that are complementary to each other, hence forming a double helical structure. Each RNA molecule only consists of a single strand of nucleotides. The base pairs between between the two strands in DNA are A with T, C with G which are said to be complementary pairs. In RNA, the base pairs are A with U, and C with G.

Translation is synthesis of a protein form the mRNA strand where the code in the mRNA strand is converted into a Polypeptide (amino acid chain) Then one or more polypeptides fold to form the three dimensional structure of a protein

Put simply, what are protiens made of?


Amino Acid --> Monomer
Protein --> Polymer/Polypeptide


A protein in essence, is a long chain of Amino Acids


Proteins are made of a Amino group, Carboxyl Group and a R group.


There are 20 different types of Amino Acids in which the structure and type of Amino acid only differs due to the R group.


Hence, Amino acids are the most basic building blocks of Protein.
CK

The steps of transcription:

  1. RNA polymerase (an enzyme) attaches to a promoter sequence in the upstream of DNA, unwinds the gene and exposes the bases of the template strand.
  2. RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand from a 3' to 5' direction. Then complementary nucleotides are joined to form an RNA chain.
  3. RNA polymerase moves to the downstream region , transcription stops and the mRNA molecule is released.

Anti-codon - A sequence of three base at the end of a tRNA molecule. They pair with the complementary codon of a mRNA molecule. The anti-codon is located at one end of a tRNA molecule

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. A gene consists of a particular part if a double-helical molecule of DNA

Genes can be found in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes

Amino acids are made up of carboxylic groups, amino groups joined together

Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins

Exons are the segments of coding region of a gene. Introns are the noncoding segments between the exons. Exons encode information that will later be translated into amino acids sequences of polypeptides. introns are there to provide space so the codes don't overlap.

One triplet code makes one amino acid

Found in DNA and RNA

Made up of Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds. Each peptide bond forms the linkage of an amino group from one amino acid and a carboxyl group group of another amino acid. Polypeptide chains are formed from the peptide bond of amino acids. A dipeptide is an organic formed from two amino acids joined by a peptide bond.

Uracil is present in RNA instead of Thymine

Gene sequencing - The process of identifying the order of nucleotide within a gene

Amino acids have a two-carbon bond. One of the carbons is part of a group called the carboxyl group . A carboxyl group is made up of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. That carboxyl group has a negative charge, since it is a carboxylic acid that has lost its hydrogen atom.

A primary structure is a linear chain of amino acids whereas a secondary structure is when the chain of amino acids start to fold into different types of 3D shapes. Different proteins have difference functions and structures which is given by genetic material in the nucleus.


When the secondary structure starts to form, it creates hydrogen bonds between segments. It forms into three types:

  • Alpha Helix
  • Beta-pleated Sheet
  • Random Coiling
    It is important for the primary structure to be linear because it makes it easier for the polymerase enzyme to read the sequence.

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The nucleotide bases linked by a hydrogen bond on opposite strands of DNA or double-stranded RNA. In DNA the bases are GTAC (Guanine, Thymine, Adenine and Cytosine). In RNA Thymine changes into Uracil. Adenine pairs with Thymine (or Uracil if its RNA) and Guanine pairs up with Cytosine

Gene sequencing has many uses. One of it's uses is it allows us to identify the base sequence of our DNA and the bases sequence of other organisms and increase our understanding of how organisms function.